UC-NRLF 


Au'" 'r?.i-i9?-0 


UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 


Experimental  Research  As  a  Factor 
In  Commercial  Education 


BY 


FRANK  HENRY  KRAMEfi 


A  THESIS 

PRESENTED    TO    THE     FACULTY     OF    THE     GRADUATE    SCHOOL     IN     PARTIAL 

FULFILMENT    OF    THE    REQUIREMENTS    FOR    THE    DEGREE.  OF 

DOCTOR   OF    PHILOSOPHY 


u 


THE  SOMERVILLE  PUB.    CO. 

SOMERVILLE,  N.  J. 

1920 


EXCHANGE 


UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 


Experimental  Research  As  a  Factor 
In  Commercial  Education 


BY 

FRANK  HENRY  KRAMER 


,  A  THESIS 

PRESENTED     TO     THE     FACULTY     OF     THE     GRADUATE     SCHOOL     IN     PARTIAL 

FULFILMENT    OF    THE    REQUIREMENTS    FOR    THE    DEGREE    OF 

DOCTOR   OF    PHILOSOPHY 


'•■>     I  ■'•1  3      ., 


THE   SOMERVILLE   PUI5.    CO. 
SOMERVILLE,  N.  J. 

1920 


x>\' 


<• 


\ 


■XQM^i'j!^;'- 


CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION 

a.  Present  status  of  experimental  research  in  education. 

b.  The  need  for  experimental  research  in  commercial  education. 

c.  An  ideal  otitline  for  this  thesis. 

d.  The  limitations  which  make  it  impossible. 

e.  The  otitline  chosen. 

f .  A  brief  description  of  the  scope  of  Part  I  and  Part  II. 

g.  Finality  not  the  aim  of  this  thesis — simply  pioneer  work. 

PART  I.     WHAT  HAS  BEEN  DONE  IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCA- 
TION IN  THE  WAY  OF  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH, 
AND  WHAT  IS  NOW  UNDER  WAY  OR 
CONTEMPLATED 

'a.     The  method  of  obtaining  the  bibliography: 
Reading. 
Result. 
Letters  sent  to  the  variotts  agencies  and  individuals  wdio  would 
be  most  likely  to  be  able  to  furnish  a  bibliography  of 
experiments  condticted  in  this  field. 
Replies   received. 
Letters  sent  to  the  schools  and  departments  of  eductaion,  de- 
partments of  psychology,  and  experimenters. 
Copy  of  the  letter. 
List  of  those  to  whom  it  was  sent. 
List  of  those  who  replied. 
List  of  those  who  reported  nothing. 

b.  Bibliography  of  the  experiments — and  so-called  experiments — 
in  Commercial  Subjects,  made  or  contemplated,  giving  the 
following  information  concerning  each: 

Name  or  nature  of  the  experiment — grouped  by  subjects. 

By  whom  conducted. 

Where,  or  in  connection  with  what  institution. 

Where  the  record  of  it  is  to  be  found. 

l*\n-lher  details  concerning  it. 

PART  II.     SOME  TYPICAL   PROBLEMS   THAT  REMAIN  UN- 
SOLVED IN  SOME  OF  THE  MORE  STRICTLY  COMMER- 
CIAL SUBJECTS,  AND   A   SUGGESTED   METHOD   OF 
PROCEDURE    FOR    EXPERIMENTATION    ALONG 

THESE  LINES 

A.  Introduction.  K. 

B.  Subjects  chosen. 


425627 


C.  Some  typical  problems  remaining  unsolved  in  these  subjects, 

for  which  experiments  will  be  suggested. 

D.  Form  used  in  writing  up  these  experiments. 

The  outline. 

A  development  of  this  outline. 

E.  The  Experiments. 

a.  TYPEWRITING. 

1.  Does  emphasizing  speed  in  typewriting   interfere  with 

accuracy,  and,  if  so,  to  what  extent"'' 

2.  The  age  at  which  it  is  most  economically  advantageous 

for  a  person  to  begin  the  study  of  typewriting. 

3.  The  development  of  a  typewriting  norm. 

4.  Should  we  teach  the  Touch  ^lethod  or  rhe  Sight  Meth- 

od of  Typewriting  in  our  schools? 

5.  Should  the  schools  have  open  or  blank  keyboards  on  the 

typewriters  used   for  instruction  purposes? 

b.  STENOGRAPHY. 

1.  The  number  of  presentations  necessary  to  fix  an  outline. 

2.  The  number  of  ideas  that  can  be  presented  in  a  lesson. 

3.  Intervals  of  repetition. 

4.  A  method  of  determining  those  unfit  for  high  speed  in 

shorthand. 

5.  Forearm  vs.  finger  movement  in  shorthand. 

6.  The  drill  that  would  be  most  valuable  to  shorthand  stu- 

dents. 

7.  The  proportion  of  time  that  should  be  spent  in  reading 

back  notes. 

c.  BOOKKEEPING. 

1.  Gradation  in  Mastery. 

2.  Use  of  Suggesters. 

3.     The  use  of  forms  compared  with  the  use  of  only  the  text 
book  in  bookkeeping. 

F.  Appendix. 


5      J  111-) 


EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH  AS  A  FACTOR  IN  COMMERCIAL 

EDUCATION 

Introduction 

In  the  last  five  or  ten  years  considerable  thought  has  been  giVen  to  the 
matter  of  experimental  research  in  a  nimiber  of  the  subjects  taught  in 
our  schools.  Compared  with  what  has  been  done  in  other  fields,  very 
little  scientific  study  has  been  given  to  the  commercial  stibjecls.  It  is 
with  the  hope  that  stich  study  may  be  increased,  that  this  thesis  is 
attempted. 

Experimental  Research  in  Education  itself  is  as  yet  an  experiment.  Its 
procedtires  are  in  process  of  development.  It  has  not  even  reached  the 
stage  where  it  has  convinced  everyone  that  it  is  worth  while.  In  fact,  it 
will  take  considerable  time  to  cast  ofi^  the  opprobrium  which  has  been 
heaped  upon  its  head.  Much  of  this  negative  attitude  is  due,  not  to  real 
scientific  experimentation,  but  to  pseudo-scientific  experimentation. 

Experimenters  in  their  enthusiasm  have  not  been  careful  to  be  truly 
scientific.  They  have  offered,  as  valid,  experiments  which  have  failed 
to  observe  the  most  ordinary  scientific  precautions.  They  have  presented 
and  interpreted  with  statistical  exactness  data  which  in  itself  has  been 
worthless.  They  have  read  into  the  results  unwarranted  concktsions. 
Persons  outside  of  the  field  of  experimental  research  saw  these  weak- 
nesses and  formed  an  unfavorable  opinion  of  all  work  conducted  in  that 
field. 

But  there  is  no  reason  why  truly  scientific  experiments  should  not  be 
conducted  in  educational  lines  as  well  as  in  other  fields.  It  is  true  that, 
in  dealing  with  human  beings,  it  is  harder  to  maintain  the  uniform  condi- 
tions essential  to  valid  research,  than  it  is  in  dealing  with  some  clearly 
defined  combination  in  chemistry.  But,  if  we  can  isolate  the  factors  we 
want  to  test,  there  is  no  reason  why  we  cannot  get  good  restilts.  Even 
with  the  little  work  done  in  this  field  up  to  the  present  time,  some  reliable 
conclusions  have  been  reached.  With  each  rigidly  scientific  experiment, 
those  which  follow  become  easier.  Mr.  Edison  did  not  succeed  with  his 
incandescent  electric  lamp  until  after  his  thousanrlth  attempt,  and  his 
experiments  with  the  alkaline  storage  battery  ran  up  [o  tens  of  thousands 
before  he  was  satisfied  with  the  commercial  type  of  battery.  If  success 
comes   so  slowly  in   the   well-established   field   of   the  physical   sciences, 


2  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

workers  in  the  comparatively  new  field  of  applied  mental  science  must  not 
become  disheartened  at  tedious  hours  and  small  results. 

Since  educational  research  is  a  new  phase  of  science,  since  the  com- 
mercial subjects  have  but  recently  come  into  our  public  school  curriculum, 
and  since  there  are  not  many  scientifically  minded  teachers  of  these  sub- 
jects, it  is  hardly  to  be  expected  that  very  much  research  work  has  been 
done  in  determining  efifective  methods  of  teaching  in  this  field. 

An  ideal  outline  for  a  thesis  on  the  subject  in  mind  would  be  the  fol- 
lowing : 

Part  I.  WHAT  HAS  BEEN  DONE  IN  THIS  FIELD  AND 
WHAT  IS  NOW  UNDER  WAY  OR  CON- 
TEMPLATED. 

Part  II.     WHAT  REMAINS  TO  BE  DONE. 

a.  A  LIST  OF  THE  PROBLEMS. 

b.  A  SOLUTION  FOR  EACH  PROBLEM. 

Something  approaching  a  satisfactory  treatment  of  Part  I  is  possible, 
and,  therefore,  it  will  be  included  in  the  outline  that  will  be  adopted. 

But  it  is  much  more  than  one  man's  task  to  work  out  Part  II.  It  is 
unwise  to  pronounce  finality  on  a  subject  of  this  kind,  because  it  will  al- 
ways be  possible  to  find  someone  else  who  has  thought  of  a  problem  that 
has  never  entered  one's  own  mind.  To  conceive  all  the  problems  in  this 
field  would  be  impossible,  and  it  seems  hardly  necessary  to  argue  the 
point. 

But  even  if  a  list  of  all  the  problems  in  the  field  could  be  obtained,  it 
would  be  out  of  the  question  to  find  a  solution  for  everyone  of  them, 
and,  if  it  were  possible  to  find  the  solutions,  this  would  obviously  be  the 
work  of  more  than  one  person. 

Hence,  to  use  this  ideal  otitline  would  be  to  attempt  the  impossible, 
and,  with  this  thought  in  mind,  the  outline  will  be  modified  by  choosing 
several  of  the  more  strictly  commercial  subjects,  stating  some  typical 
problems  in  each  of  them,  and  suggesting  a  method  of  procedure  for 
experimentation  along  these  lines. 

This  thesis  then  will  have  two  main  parts  as  above,  but  modified  as  fol- 
lows : 


PART     I. 

WHAT  HAS  BEEN  DONE  IN  THIS  FIELD  AND 
WHAT  IS  NOW  UNDER  WAY  OR  CONTEM- 
PLATED. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  3 

PART  II. 

SOME  TYPICAL  PROBLEMS  THAT  REMAIN 
UNSOLVED  IN  SOME  OE  THE  MORE  STRICT- 
LY COMMERCIAL  SUBJECTS,  AND 

A  SUGGESTED  METHOD  OF  PROCEDURE 
FOR  EXPERIMENTATION  ALONG  THESE 
LINES. 

PART  I  contains  an  exhaustive  list  of  the  efforts  made  in  Commercial 
Education  to  solve  problems  by  experimenting.  Attempts  have  been  in- 
cluded that  are  not  scientific,  as  well  as  those  that  are,  for  the  reason  that 
the  purpose  of  this  thesis  is  a  practical  one,  and,  even  though  an  experi- 
ment may  not  be  scientific,  it  may  contain  suggestions  which  may  help 
someone  who  is  trying  to  solve  the  same  problem  scientifically.  It  may  do 
no  more  tlian  point  out  the  things  to  be  avoided  when  the  experiment  is 
tried  again,  but  this  is  sufficient  ground  for  including  it. 

In  PART  II  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  state  all  that  remains  to  be 
done  either  in  the  listing  of  the  problems  in  the  commercial  field  that  are 
not  settled,  or  in  the  developing  of  methods  of  procedure  to  solve  these 
problems.  A  few  outstanding  commercial  subjects  have  been  selected  and 
the  procedure  for  typical  experiments  in  these  subejcts  will  be  suggested. 
The  methods  suggested  are  not  given  as  absolutely  valid  methods.  That 
judgment  cannot  be  pronounced  upon  them  until  after  they  have  been 
tried  out  thoroughly.  Care  has  been  taken  in  thinking  them  out,  but  any- 
one who  has  spent  some  time  in  a  seminar  where  work  of  this  kind 
is  conducted  knows  only  too  well  that,  even  with  15  or  20  persons  passing 
judgment  upon  the  validity  of  the  method,  it  is  possible  to  overlook  some 
important  details  which  are  not  discovered  until  after  the  experiment  has 
been  completed. 

This  thesis  is  written  as  pioneer  work  in  commercial  studies  and  is 
therefore  likely  to  have  all  the  shortcomings  that  we  find  in  such  work. 

It  is  earnestly  hoped  that  a  considerable  number  of  commercial  teach- 
ers will,  before  long,  become  interested  in  this  line  of  work  and  that,  by 
criticising,  improving,  expanding,  and  testing  the  methods  presented,  they 
will  make  it  possible  to  build  up  a  body  of  scientific  data  for  teaching 
commercial  subjects. 


PART   I 

WHAT   HAS  BEEN  DONE   IX   THIS   FIELD  AND  WHAT   IS    NOW    UNDER   WAY   OR 

CONTEMPLATED 

A  thesis  on  this  subject  should  contain  a  complete  bibliography  of  the 
experiments  already  conducted  in  the  field.  To  this  end  a  careful  search 
has  been  made  of  the 

Monthly  Record  of  Current  Educational  Publications,  U.  S.  Bu- 
reau of  Education 

Reader's  Guide  to  Periodical  List 

Reports  of  Educational  Associations 

and  books  of  the  type  of  the  following : 

Mind  in  the  Making,  Swift 

Principles  &  ^Methods  in  Commercial  Education,  Kahn  &  Klein 
Principles  of  Teaching,  Thorndike 
Educational   Psychology,   Thorndike 
Psychology  of  Learning,  Thorndike 
The  Army  Trade  Tests 
\^ocational  Psychology,  Hollingworth 

Survey  of  the  Needs  in  Commercial  Education,  Rochester  Cham- 
ber of  Commerce 
Experiments  in  Educational  Psychology.  Starch 
Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  School,  Parker 
The  American  High  School,  Brown 
High  School  Education,  Johnston  et  al. 
Psychological   Principles  of   Education.  Home 

In  addition  to  this,  letters  asking  for  a  bibliography  of  educational 
experiments  in  commercial  subjects  and  for  information  concerning  such 
experiments  under  way  or  contemplated  were  addressed  to  a  number  of 
institutions  and  individuals  who  would  be  likely  to  have  information  on 
the  matter,  among  them  : 

The  Congressional  Lil)rary 

Pennsylvania  State  Library 

\J.  S.  Bureau  of  Education 

Carnegie   Institution   of   Washington 

Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching 

General    Education   Board 

Russell  Sage  Foundation 

Pan-American  Scientific  Congress 

National  Associated  Schools  of  Scientific  Business 

Director  of  Cleveland  Educational  Survey 

National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  5 

Women's  Industrial  &  Kdncational  Union 

Division  of  Reference  &  Research,  Department  of  Education,  The 

City  of  New  York 
Department    of    Educational    Investigation    &    Measurement,    The 

School  Committee  of  the  City  of  Boston 
Bureau  of  Experimental  Research.  New  York  City 
Chamher  of  Commerce,  Boston 
Chamber  of  Commerce.  Cleveland 
Chamher  of  Commerce,  Chicago 
Chamber  of   Commerce,  Rochester 
F.  V.  Thompson,  Asst.  Supt.  of  Schools,  Boston 
Cheesman  A.  Herrick,  Pres.,  Girard  College 
Miss  Bertha  M.   Stevens,   Secy,   of   Educational   Committee,   New 

York  City 
Rochester  Bureau  of  Efficiency,  Board  of   Education,  Rochester, 

N.  Y. 
Director  of   Research  &   Efficiency,  Board  of    Educa+ion,   Kansas 

City,  Mo. 
New  Orleans  Dept.  of  Education  &  Research,  Board  of  Education, 

New  Orleans,  La. 
Detroit  Dept.  of  Education  t^  Research,  Board  of  I'Iducation,  De- 
troit,  Mich. 

Negative  answers  were  received  from  the  following,  stating  that  they 
'Could  furnish  no  such  bibliography  or  knew  of  no  experiments  : 

The  Congressional   Library 

Pennsylvania  State  Library 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education 

Carnegie  Institute  of  Washington 

General  Education  Board 

The  Survey  Committee  of  The  Cleveland  I'^oundation 

National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education 

Division  of  Reference  &  Research,  Dejit.  of  Education,  The  City 

of  New  York- 
Department    of    Educational    Investigation    &    Measurement,    The 

School  Committee  of  the  City  of  Boston 
Joseph  P.  O'Hern,  Asst.  Supt..  Dept.  of  Public  Instruction.  Ro- 
chester. N.  Y. 
Geo.  Melcher,  Director  Bureau  of  Research  &  Efficiency,  Kansas 
City,  Mo. 

Several  did  not  re])ly  (at  least,  the  reply  was  not  received)  and  most 
•of  the  others  furnished  no  information  that  proved  to  be  what  was 
wanted. 

A  letter,  asking  for  a  list  of  the  ex])eriments  conducted  in  commercial 
branches,  was  sent  to  a  num])er  of  Schools  and  Departments  of  Education 
of  the  higher  educational  institutions  in  the  United  Slates  and  Canada; 
.also  to  the  Department  of  Psychology  of  several  of  the  universities  where 


6  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

the  experimentation  is  carried  on  by  that  department  rather  than  by  the 
Department  of  Education.  The  letter  was  also  sent  to  a  number  of  indi- 
viduals who  are  authorises  on  experimental  education. 

The  letter  sent,  read  as  follows  : 

University  of  Pennsylvania, 

Philadelphia,  Pa..  March  i8,  1918. 

Dear  Sir  :  As  a  basis  for  further  experimentation  on  efficiency  in  the 
teaching  of  the  commercial  branches,  I  am  compiling  3  bibliography  of 
experiments  bearing  upon  that  field,  including  Stenography,  Typewriting, 
Bookkeeping,  Rapid  Addition,  Commercial  Arithmetic,  Commercial  Geog- 
raphy, Commercial  Law,  Economics,  Advertising.  Business  English  and 
Penmanship. 

\V\\\  you  have  some  one  send  me  a  list  of  the  experimcn  s  along  this 
line,  made  or  to  be  made  at  your  university, — printed  or  unprinted.  In 
the  event  that  there  is  nothing  to  report,  I  would  appreciate  word  to  that 
effect.  If  you  wish  it,  I  will,  in  return,  send  vou  a  Hst  of  the  experiments 
reported  to  me. 

Yours  very  truly, 

It  was  sent  to  the  following:* 

University  of  Alabama 

University  of  Arizona 

University  of  Arkansas 

University  of  California 

Pomona  College 

University  of   Southern  California 

University  of  Redlands 

College  of  the  Pacific 

University  of  Santa  Clara 

Leland   Stanford  Junior  LTniversity 

University  of  Colorado 

University  of  Denver 

Yale  University 

Delaware   College 

Catholic  University  of  America 

George  Washington  University 

Howard    University 

John  B.  Stetson  University 

University  of  Florida 

University  of  Georgia 

Atlanta   University 

Mercer  University 

Lhiiversity  of   Idaho 

Illinois  Wesleyan   University 

De  Paul  University 

University  of  Chicago 


*Listed  alphabetically  by  states,  per  Educational  Directory  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau: 
of  Education. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  7 

James  Millikin   Cniversity 

Northwestern  University 

University  of  Illinois 

Indiana  University 

Indiana  Central  University 

Purdue  University 

Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture  &  Mechanic  Arts 

Iowa  State  Teachers  College 

Drake  University 

Central  University  of  Iowa 

Baker  University 

Kansas  City  University 

University  of  Kansas 

Friends   University 

State  University  of  Kentucky 

Louisiana  State  University  &  Agricultural  &  Mechanical  College 

H.  Sophie  Newcomb  Memorial  College  (Tulane  Univ.) 

Bowdoin  College 

Bates  College 

University  of  Maine 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

Western  Maryland  College 

Boston  University 

Simmons  College 

Harvard  University 

Radcliffe  College 

Smith  College 

Mount  Holyoke  College 

Wellesley  College 

Clark  University 

University  of  Michigan 

University  of  Detroit 

University  of  Minnesota 

Carleton  College 

Hamline  University 

]\Iississippi  College 

University  of  Missouri 

Washington  University 

University  of  Montana 

University  of  Nebraska 

Graduate' School  of  Education,  Creighton  University 

University  of  Omaha 

Nebraska  ^^' esleyan  University 

State  University  of  Nevada 

Dartmouth  College 

Rutgers  College 

University  of  New  Mexico 

New  York  State  College  for  Teacliers 

Alfred  University 

Colgate  University 


^  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

Cornell  University 
College  of  the  City  of  New  York 
iNew  lork  University 
Teachers  College 
University  of  Rochester 
Syracuse  University 
University  of  North  Carolina 
.Shaw  University 
University  of  North  Dakota 
Ohio  University 
University  of  Cincinnati 
Ohio  State  University 
Ohio  \\>sleyan  Universitv 
Oberlin  College 
Miami  University 
Otterbein  University 
University  of  Oklahoma 
University  of  Oregon 
Pacific  University 
Willamette  University 
University  of  Pittsburg 
University  of  Porto  Rico 
Brown  University 
Universit)-  of  South  Carolina 
Dakota  Wesleyan  University 
University  of  South  Dakota 
University  of  Chattanooga 
University  of  Tennessee 
University  of  Texas 
Southwestern  Universitv 
Baylor  University 
University  of  Utah 

MiXbu^yto^:™™'  ^'"  -^'"^  ■^»-'"'""-'  College 

University  of  Virginia 
Randol])h-Macon  Women's  Colle-e 
University  of  \\'ashington  "^ 

West  Virginia  University 
University  of  Wisconsin 
University  of  A\  yoming 
University  of  Toronto 
McGill  University 

Replies  ^^■ere  received  from  the  followin-  • 

University  of  Alabama 
University  of  Arizona 
University  of  Arkansas 
Pomona  College 


IN  CO^niERCIAL  EDUCATION 

University  of  Santa  Clara 

Lcland  Stanford  Junior  University 

University  of  Colorado 

University  of  Denver 

Yale  University 

Delaware  College 

Catholic  University  of  America 

George  Washington  University 

Atlanta  University 

University  of  Chicago 

University  of  Illinois 

Indiana  University 

Purdue  University 

Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture  &  Mechanic  Arts 

Kansas  City  University 

University  of  Kansas 

U.  Sophie  Newcomb  Memorial  College  (Tulane  Univ.) 

Bates  College 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

Boston  University 

Simmons  College 

Harvard  University 

Clark  University 

University  of  Michigan 

Universitv  of  Detroit 

University  of  Minnesota 

Nebraska  W'esleyan  University 

Dartmouth  College 

Rutgers  College 

University  of  New  Mexico 

Alfred  University 

Colgate  University 

Cornell  University 

College  of  the  City  of  New  York 

New  York  University 

Teachers  College 

Shaw  University 

University  of  North  Dakota 

Ohio  University 

University  of  Cincinnati 

Ohio  State  University 

Ohio  W'esleyan  University 

Oberlin  College 

Ottcrbein  University 

University  of  Porto  Rico 

University  of  South  Carolina 

Dakota  \Vesleyan  University 

University  of  South  Dakota 

University   of   Chattanooga 


lo  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

University  of  Tennessee 

University  of  Texas 

Southwestern  University 

University  of  Utah 

University  of  Vermont  &  State  Agricultural  College 

Middlebury  College 

University  of  Virginia 

Randolph-]\Iacon  Women's  College 

University  of  Washington 

University  of  Wisconsin 

University  of  Wyoming 

University  of  Toronto 

McGill  University 

The  following  had  nothing  to  report : 

University  of  Alabama 

University  of  Arizona 

University  of  Arkansas 

Pomona  College 

University  of  Santa  Clara 

Leland  Stanford  Junior  University 

University  of  Denver 

Yale  University 

Delaware   College 

Catholic  University  of  America 

Atlanta  University 

University  of  Illinois 

Purdue  University 

Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture  &  Mechanic  Arts 

Kansas  City  University 

University  of  Kansas 

H.  Sophie  Newcomb  Memorial  College  (Tulane  Univ.) 

Bates  College 

Simmons  College 

Harvard  University 

Clark  University 

University  of   Michigan 

University  of  Detroit 

University  of  Minnesota 

Nebraska  Wesleyan  University 

Dartmouth  College 

Rutgers  College 

University  of  New  Mexico 

Alfred  University 

Colgate  University 

Cornell  University 

College  of  the  City  of  New  York 

Shaw   University 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  u 

University  of  Xorth  Dakota 
Ohio  University 
Ohio  State  University 
(  )hi()   W'esleyan  University 
Otterl)ein  University 
University  of   Porto  Rico 
University  of   South  Carolina 
Dakota  Wesleyan  University 
Universitv  of   Chattanooga 
University  of  Tennessee 
University  of  Texas 
Southwestern  University 
University  of  Utah 

University  of  Vermont  (!\:  State  Agricultural  College 
Middlehury  College 
University  of  Virginia 
Randolph-Macon   Women's   College 
University  of  Washington 
University  of  Wisconsin 
University  of  Wyoming- 
University  of  Toronto 
McGill  University 

SUMMARY 

Schools  written  to    120 

Answers   received   67 

Schools  that  had  nothing  to  report 56 

Sciiools  that  did  not  reply 53 

The  present  investigation  has  disclosed  the  following  experiments:* 

TNPEWRITING 

William  I<"rederick  Book,  "The  Psychology  of  Skill  with  Special  Refer- 
ence to  Its  Acc|uisition  in  Typewriting."  Montana  University 
Publications.     1908. 

A  very  elabf)rate  piece  of  work.  Its  aim  was  to  obtain  a  prac- 
tice or  learning  curve  and  to  obtain  from  self-observations  and  ob- 
jective records,  data  to  explain  the  curves,  ii  subjects  took  part 
in   the  experiment. 

Frederic  Lyman  W  ells,  "On  the  Psychomotor  ^Mechanisms  of  Typewrit- 
ing," American  Journal  of  Psychology,  Jan.,   1916,  Vol.  XXVII 
pp.  47-70. 

Its  aim  was  to  infjuire  into  increasing  the  efficiency  of  type- 
writing on  the  psychological  side.     Two  subjects  took  part. 

*The  search  was  not  confined  to  the  sul)jects  mentoiiied   in   tlie   letter  on   p.  6. 


12  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

Clark  University  reported  that  Prof,  (then  Major)  M.  E.  Haggerty  of 
the  University  of  ^Minnesota  had  obtained  some  vakiable  results 
on  the  teaching  of  typewriting. 

Simmons  College  reported  that  Mr.  TuUos  of  Harvard  University  had  re- 
cently been  conducting  some  investigations  on  the  work  in  type- 
writing and  telegraphy  in  their  classes. 

George  Washington  University,  Dr.  Ruediger  reported  that  one  of  his 
graduate  students,  Mrs.  Daisy  I.  HuiT  was  working  on  her  master's 
essay  on  the  subject  of  teaching  Shorthand  and  Typewriting.  It 
had  not  been  completed. 

Hill,  Rejall  &  Thorndike,  on  "Practice  in  the  case  of  Typewriting"  Peda- 
gogical Seminar,  Dec.  1913,  Vol.  XX,  pp.  516-529. 

William  A.  Cook,  University  of  Colorado,  reported  an  experiment  he 
had  under  way  to  map  the  curve  of  progress  from  month  to  month, 
with  the  ultimate  establishment  of  norms  in  mind. 

University  of  Chicago  reported  three  unpublished  theses  (masters)  by  C. 
L.  Kjerstad,  "An  Experimental  Study  of  the  Form  and  Fluctua- 
tions of  Learning  Curves  of  Typewriting." 

C.  G.  Bradford,  "Experiments  in  Typewriting,"  Pedagogical  Seminar, 
Vol.  XXII,  pp.  445-460.  Four  subjects  took  part  in  this  experi- 
ment. 

SHORTHAND 

William  A.  Cook,  University  of  Colorado,  reported  that  he  also  had  un- 
der way  an  experiment  in  stenography. 

George  Washington  University,  Dr.  Ruediger,  reported  that  one  of  his 
graduate  students,  Mrs.  Daisy  I.  Fluif,  was  working  on  her  mas- 
ter's essay  on  the  Teaching  of  Shorthand  and  Typewriting.  It  had 
not  been  completed. 

University  of  Texas  reported  that  Miss  Ina  Thomas,  Secretary  of  the 
National  Commercial  Teachers  Association,  had  recently  made 
some  experiments  in  stenography. 

COMMERCIAL    ARITHMETIC 

University  of  Chicago  reported  three  unpublished  master's  theses  by  Geo. 
Amos  Beers,  "Tests  of  various  methods  of  drill  in  Commercial 
Arithmetic." 

Paul  H.  Hanus  and  K.  D.  Gaylord,  "Courtis  Arithmetic  Tests  applied  to 
Employees  in  Business  Houses."  Educational  Administration  and 
Supervision,  Nov.  1917. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  13 

ADVERTISING 

Hollingworth,  "The  Psychology  of  Advertising  and  Business  Practice." 
Reported  by  Dr.  Thorndike,  Teachers  College. 

R.  H.  Stetson,  "The  Optimal  Size  of  Type  for  Advertising  Headlines." 
Reported  by  Oberlin  College. 

MISCELLANEOUS 

University  of  North  Dakota  reported  that  Prof.  Joseph  Kennedy  would 
have  a  short  article  for  the  School  of  Education  Record  suggest- 
ing experimentation  along  different  lines  in  the  schools  of  the 
state. 

Johns  Hopkins  University  reported  that  Miss  Flora  D.  Sutton  had  made 
a  very  interesting  study  on  failures  in  different  subjects  of  stu- 
dents in  four  dift'erent  high  schools. 

In  searching  through  the  Monthly  Record  of  Current  Educational  Pub- 
lications, of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  a  considerable  list  of  material 
on  Handwriting  and  Spelling  was  found.  These  are  not  strictly  commercial 
subjects,  but  it  was  thought  advisable  to  include  the  list,  though  it  was 
not  deemed  necessary  to  give  an  evaluation,  as  they  have  no  particular 
bearing  on  the  experiments  under  consideration. 

The  list  is  as  follows : 

HANDWRITING 

1913 — Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  Nov.  1912.  The  Writing- 
Abilities  of  the  Elementary  &  Grammar  School  Pupils  of  a  City 
School  System,  Measured  by  the  Ayres  Scale. 

Journal    of    Educational    Psychology,    Oct.     1913.     Starch.     The 
Measurement  of   Handwriting. 

1914 — School  &  Home  Education,  April  1914.  Helps  from  the  Use  of 
Standard  Scales  of  Attainment  in  School  Subjects.     Writing. 

Elementary  School  Journal.  Xov.  1914.     School  Subjects  as  Ma- 
terial  for  Tests  of  Mental  Ability.     Writing. 

Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  Nov.  1914.     A  Comparison  of 
the  Ayres  and  Thorndike  Handwriting  Scales. 

American  School  Board  Journal,  May,  1914.     A  Method  of  Meas- 
uring Handwriting.     Witham. 

191 5 — Starch.  The  Measurement  of  Efficiency  in  Reading,  Writing, 
Spelling  and  English.  The  College  Book  Store,  1914.  Madison,. 
Wisconsin. 


14  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

Elementary  School  Journal,  Jan.  15.  The  Use  of  an  Objective 
Scale  for  Grading  Handwriting. 

Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  Feb.  15.  Slarch,  The  Meas- 
urement of  Efficiency  in  Handwriting. 

Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  Feb.  191 5.  Training  of 
Judgment  in  the  Use  of  the  Ayres  Scale  for  Handwriting. 

Starch.  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  Mar.  1915.  The 
Measurement  of  Efficiency  in  Spelling  and  the  Overlapping  of 
Grades  in  Combined  Measurements  of  Reading,  Writing  and 
Spelling. 

Elementary  School  Journal.  1915  April.  An  Analytical  Scale  for 
Judging  Handwriting.     Freeman. 

School  &  Society.  Oct.  30,  1915.  An  application  and  Critique 
of  Ayres  Handwriting  Scales. 

National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  14th  Year  Book. 
Handwriting,  F.  N.  Freeman.     Univ.  of  Chicago  Press. 

Russell  Sage  Foundation.  Ayres.  A  Scale  for  Measuring  the 
Handwriting  of  Adults. 

Teachers  College  Record,  Vol.  XV,  No.  5.  Teachers'  Estimates 
of  the  Quality  of  Specimens  of  Handwriting.     Thorndike. 

Educational  Administration  &  Supervision,  May,  191 5.  A  Means 
-of  Measuring  School  Achievement  in  Handwriting.     Thorndike. 

Educational  Administration  &  Supervision,  May,  1915.  All  the 
Elements  of  Handwriting  Measured.     Witham. 

1916 — Elementary   School   Journal.     Feb.    1916.     Measuring   quality   of 
Handwriting. 

Elementary  School  Journal.  Feb.  1916.  Handwriting  tests  for 
use  in  school  surveys.     Freeman. 

Journal  of  Educational  Psychology.  Oct.  1916.  A  study 
in  Handwriting. 

James  H.  Harris.  Supt.  of  Schools,  Dubuque,  la.  A  study  of 
handwriting  in  the  public  schools  of  Dubuque,  Iowa. 

Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  Nov.  1912.  Writing  Abilities 
of  Elementary  and  Grammar  School  Pupils  of  the  City  School 
system  by  the  Ayres  Scale. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  15 

1917 — N.  Carolina  High  School  Bulletin,  Oct.   1916.     A  comparison  of 
Ayres  and  Thorndike  Handwriting  Scales. 

Educational  A(lniini>trati()n  and  Supervision.  Nov.  1916.  A 
Comparison  of  Writing,  Spelling  and  Arthmetic  Abilities,  of  the 
Country  and  City  Children. 

Elementary  School  Journal.     Rhythm  in  Handwriting.     Eeb.  1917. 

Measuring  and  Standardization  of  Handwriting  in  a  School  sys- 
tem.    Elementary  School  Journal.  March   1917. 

1918 — A.  X.  Palmer  Co.  New  York  City.     8  leaflets.     Standards  for  the 
valuation  of  Efficiency  in  Palmer  methods  of  Handwriting. 

Elementary  School  Journal,  Eeb.,  1918.  The  Determination  of 
Estimate  Standards  of  Quality  in  Handwriting  in  the  Public  School. 

Elementary  School  Journal,  Feb.  1918.  The  Comparative  Ac- 
curacy of  the  Ayres  Handwriting  Scale,   Gettysburg  Edition. 

journal  of  the  N.  Y.  State  Teachers'  Assn.,  March  1918.  Pen- 
manship Scales — Their  Merits  and   Limitations. 

Elementary  School  Journal,  June  1918.  The  Results  of  Some 
Classroom  Measurements.      (Portsmouth,   N.   H.,   Schools). 

Zaner  &  Bloser,  Columbus,  Ohio.  1917  (?).  Handwriting 
iMeasurements,  Standards  and  Methods.  Report  and  Results  of 
Cliillicothe,  Ohio,  Surveys  in  Writing. 

Elementary  School  Journal,  Sept.  1918.  The  Use  of  a  Score  Card 
in  Measuring  Handwriting. 

Louisiana  Dept.  of  Ed.  Bulletin  No.  i,  June  1918.  Report  on 
Spelling  and  Penmruiship  in  Coimtry  Schools. 

Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  Oct.  1918.  An  Analytic  Scale 
of  Handwriting. 

Bulletin  of  the  Northern  Normal  &  Industrial  School.  Oct.  1918. 
Reading,  Writing,  Arithmetic,  and  Spelling  in  the  City  and  Town 
Schools  of  South  Dakota  in  1917-18. 

19 1 9 — Business  Education.     Dec.    1918.     Some  Measurements   in  Com- 
mercial Education. 

Pittsburgh  Board  of  Pub.  Ed.  Research  &  Measurement  Bulletin 
No.  3.     Writing  Test,  June  4,  1918. 


i6  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  Apr.  1919.  The  Effect  of  Ex- 
empting Pupils  Proficient  in  Handwriting. 

School  &  Society,  Feb.  18,  1919.  Starch.  A  Scale  for  Measuring 
Handwriting. 

Boston.  Dept.  of  Educational  Investigation  &  Measurement.  Bul- 
letin No.  17.  Organization  &  Administration  of  the  Intermediate 
Schools  of  Boston. 

Wisconsin  State  Dept.  of  Education  Bulletin  No.  i,  Studies  in 
Educational  Measurement.  1916-17.  Report  on  the  Use  of  Some 
Standard  Tests. 

SPELLING 

1913 — Ayres  Spelling  Vocabularies  of  Personal  &  Business  Letters.  Rus- 
sell Sage  Foundation.     Pamphlet  E-126. 

Va.  Journal  of  Education,  Dec.  1912.     An  Experiment  in  Spelling. 

Education,  Sept.  1913.  A  Review  of  Pedagogical  Studies  in  the 
Teaching  of  Spelling.     (Describes  the  different  tests.) 

Teachers  College  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  59.  B.  R. 
Buckingham.  Spelling  Ability;  Its  Measurement  and  Distribu- 
tion, 1 91 3. 

1914 — Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  Oct.  1914.  Further  Experi- 
mental Research  on  Learning  to  Spell. 

School  World,  Nov.  191 3.  Report  of  an  Investigation  into  Spell- 
ing.    Experiment  at  Manchester,  England. 

Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  Nov.  1913.  Experimental 
Researches  on  Learning  to  Spell. 

191 5 — Starch.  The  ^Measurement  of  Ef-ficiency  in  Reading,  \\'riting, 
Spelling  and  English.  The  College  Book  Store,  1914,  ]\Iadison, 
Wis. 

Starch.  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  ^lar.  191 5.  The 
Measurement  of  Efficiency  in  Spelling  and  the  Overlapping  of 
Grades  in  Combined  ^leasurements  of  Reading,  Writing  and 
Spelling. 

Pedagogical  Seminary,  Sept.  191 5.  Critical  Study  of  Rice's  Spell- 
ing Efficiency  Investigation. 

School  and  Society,  Oct.  9  and  16,  191 5.  Spelling  Efficiency  in 
the  Oakland  Schools. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  17 

Russell  Sage  Foundation.  Ayres.  A  Measuring  Scale  for  Abil- 
ity in  Spelling. 

North  Carolina  High  School  Bulletin,  Apr.  191 5.  High  School 
Pupils  Tested  on  Spelling. 

National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education.  14th  Year  Book. 
Spelling,  H.  C.  Pryor.     Univ.  of  Chicago  Press. 

Educational  Administration  &  Supervision,  ]May  1915.  A  Means 
of   ^Measuring   School   Achievements   in    Spelling.      I'horndike. 

1916 — Poi)ular  Educator.  Dec.   191 5.     Tacoma  Spelling  Survey.     E.  E. 
Crook,  Supt.  of  Schools,  Tacoma,  W'ash. 

Elementary  School  Journal,  Dec.  1915.  The  Relation  of  Spelling 
Ability  to  General  Intelligence  and  to  Meaning  Vocabulary. 

Oakland,  Calif.,  Board  of  Education  191 5.  Bur.  of  Inf.,  Stat.,  & 
Ed.  Res.  Publication.  Spelling  Efficiency  in  the  Oakland  Schools. 
Report  of  the  Oakland  Spelling  Investigation  of  Oct.  1914. 

School  &  Society,  Dec.  18,  191 5.  Measuring  a  School  System  by 
the  Buckingham  Spelling  Scale. 

Elementary  School  Journal,  Mar.  1916.  Measuring  Progress. 
\\'ichita,  Kansas,  Spelling  Tests. 

Journal  of  Educational  Psychology.  Feb.  1916.  Additional  Re- 
searches on  Learning  to  Spell. 

A  Descriptive  &  Critical  Study  of  Buckingham's  Investigation  of 
Spelling  Efficiency.  Educational  Administration  &  Supervision 
i\Iay  1916. 

Elementary  School  Journal,  June  19 16.  Testing  the  spelling  abil- 
ities of  Iowa  .School  Children  1)y  the  lUickingham  Test. 

J.  W.  Studebaker  Spelling;  Results  of  an  Investigation  of  pupils' 
ability  to  spell.     Newson  &  Co.,  N.  Y.    1916. 

Midland  Schools.  Sept.  1916.  The  Relation  Between  Spelling 
Judgment  and  Spelling  Ability. 

School  &  Society.  Aug.  26,  1916.  Difficulty  of  Ayres  Spelling 
scale,  as  shown  by  560  students. 

School  &•  Society.  Oct.  28.  1916,  Nov.  4,  tt.  t8.  1916.  The  Relia- 
bility of  Spelling  Scales  Involving  A  Deviation  Formula  for  Cor- 
relation. 


i8  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

1917 — Educational  Administration  and  Supervision.  Nov.  1916.  A 
Comparison  of  Writing,  Spelling  and  Arithmetic  Ability  of  Coun- 
try and  City  Children. 

Weighing  the  Scales.  English  Journal,  Alarch  1917.  Resume  of 
Different  Measurements  for  testing  Spelling,  etc.,  University  Chi- 
cago Press. 

I 
Boston.  Dept.  of  Educational  Investigation  &  ^Measurement.  Bul- 
letin XL    Spelling.    The  Teaching  of  Spelling. 

1918 — Elementary  School  Journal,  Nov.  1917.  Extent  and  Meaning  of 
the  loss  in  transfer  in  Spelling. 

Journal  of  the  New  York  State  Teachers'  Assn.  March  191 8.  A 
Practical  Application  of  Standard  Tests  in  Spelling,  Language  and 
Arithmetic. 

Cleveland,  Ohio,  Board  of  Education.  Division  of  Reference  & 
Research.  Bulletin  No.  2,  Alarch  11,  1918.  The  Results  of  a 
Spelling  Test. 

Elementary  School  Journal,  May  1918.  Practical  Application  of 
Standard  Tests  in  Spelling,  Languages,  and  Arithmetic. 

New  York  (City)  Dept.  of  Ed.,  Division  of  Reference  &  Research. 
Publication  No.  16.  Report  on  some  Measurements  in  Spelling  in 
Schools  of  the  Borough  of  Richmond,  City  of  New  York. 

Elementary  School  Journal.  June  191 8.  The  Results  of  Some 
Classroom   Measurements.      (Portsmouth,    N.   H.). 

Louisiana  Dept.  of  Ed.  Bulletin  No.  i.  June  1918.  Report  on 
Spelling  and  Penmanship  in  Country  Schools. 

1919 — Teachers  College  Record.  ^lar.  1919.  The  Psychological  Exam- 
ination of  Poor  Spellers. 

Colo.  State  Teachers'  Bulletin,  Ser.  18.  No.  12,  Alar.  1919, 
Research  Bulletin  No.  2.     A  Study  in  Spelling. 

Louisiana  State  Dept.  of  Ed.  Bulletin  No.  6,  May  1919.  Report 
on  Spelling  in  the  City  of  Alexandria,  Rapides  Parish. 

Elementary  School  Journal.  May  1919.  An  Experiment  in  Column 
versus  Dictation  Spelling. 

Washington  Ed.  Assn.  Annual for  the  Year  1918,  con- 
taining report  on  Spelling  by  Dr.  Clifford  Woody. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  19 

Elcnientury  School  Journal.  June  1919.  An  Experimental  Eval- 
uation of  Method  in  Spelling. 

Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  May-June  1919.  Standard- 
ized Illustrative  Sentences  for  the  Springfield  Spelling  List. 

General  Education  Board.  Stuart  A.  Courtis.  The  Gary  Public 
Schools.     Measurement  of  Classroom  Products. 

Los  Angeles  School  Dept.  Div.  of  Ed.  Res.  ist  Year  Book  Sec.  i. 
School  Document  No.  13.     Gives  results  in  Writing  &  Spelling. 

Commercial  Tests  &  How  to  Use  Them.     Sherwin  Cody. 

Pittsburgh  Bd.  of  Pub.  Ed.  Research  &  Measurement  Bulletin 
No.  3.     Writing  Test,  June  4,  1918. 

Bulletin  of  the  Northern  Normal  &  Industrial  School,  Oct.  1918. 
Reading,  Writing,  Spelling,  and  Arithmetic  in  the  City  and  Town 
Schools  of  South  Dakota  in  1917-18. 

University  of  Iowa  Extension  Bulletin,  First  Series  No.  24,  Nov. 
25,  1918.     Bui.  No.  43.     Iowa  Spelling  Scale. 


PART  II 

SOME  TYPICAL    PROBLEMS   THAT   REMAIN    UNSOLVED   IN    SOME  OF   THE    MORE 

STRICTLY    COMMERCIAL    SUBJECTS    AND    A    SUGGESTED    METHOD    OF 

PROCEDURE  FOR  EXPERIMENTATION   IN   THESE  LINES 

From  PART  I  it  will  be  seen  that  the  commercial  education  field  is 
still  open  for  much  research  work  along  experimental  lines. 

In  accordance  with  the  plan  laid  down  in  the  introduction,  a  few  of 
the  strictly  commercial  subjects  have  been  chosen  and  an  effort  has  been 
made  to  develop  a  method  of  procedure  for  some  typical  experiments  in 
these  subjects. 

The  subjects  chosen  are  : 

Typewriting 

Shorthand 

Bookkeeping 

Some  typical  problems,  remaining  unsolved  in  these  subjects,  are  the 
following : 

TYPEWRITING 

1.  Does  emphasizing  speed  in  typewriting  interfere  with  ac- 

curacy, and,  if  so,  to  what  extent? 

2.  The  age  at  which  it  is  most  economically  advantageous  for 

a  person  to  begin  the  study  of  typewriting. 

3.  The  production  of  a  typewriting  norm. 

4.  Should  we  teach  the  Touch  Method  or  the  Sight  [Method 

of    Typewriting   in   our    schools? 

5.  Should  the  schools  have  open  or  blank  keyboards  on  the 

typewriters  used  for  instruction  purposes? 

STENOGRAPHY 

1.  The  number  of  presentations  necessary  to  fix  an  outline. 

2.  The  number  of  ideas  that  can  be  presented  in  a  lesson. 

3.  Intervals  of  repetition. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION 


21 


4.  A  method   for  deterniinino"  those   unfit   for   high   speed   in 

shorthand. 

5.  I'orearni  vs.  linger  movement  in  shortliand. 

6.  The  drill  that  would  be  most  valuable  to  shorthand  students. 

7.  The  i)roportion  of  time  that   should  be   spent   in   reading 

back  notes. 

BOOKKEEPING 

1.  Gradation  in  mastery. 

2.  Use  of  suggesters. 

3.  The  use  of   forms  vs.   the  use   of   only   the   text  book,   in 

bookkeeping. 


FORM    USED   IN    WRITING   UP   THE   EXPERIMENTS 

In  writing  up  the  method  of  procedure  for  the  experiments  just  listed, 
it  was  thought  wise  to  follow  the  outline  used  in  the  Pedagogical  Seminar 
conducted  by  Dr.  A.  Duncan  Yocum  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
This  outline  was  developed  in  the  Seminar  under  Dr.  Yocum's  direction 
and  was  formulated  by  Dr.  Ambrose  H.  Suhrie,  a  former  member  of  the 
Seminar. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  outline,  it  has  been  planned  for  use  in  a  semi- 
nar. It  covers  every  stej)  in  an  experiment,  from  the  time  the  problem  is 
first  conceived  until  the  experiment  is  completed,  and  the  results  are 
printed  and  distributed.  Since  the  experiments  herein  given  are  not  be- 
ing presented  to  a  seminar,  certain  portions  of  the  outline  will,  of  course, 
"be  omitted  in  the  treatise  and  a  few  slight  modifications  will  be  made  to 
suit  the  needs  of  presenting  the  subject  outside  of  a  seminar. 

It   was  thought   well   to  use  this  oiuline: 

Because  it  is  a  good  one  and  seems  to  answer  the  ])urjK)se  satis- 
factorily. 

Because  it  has  been  used  in  writing  up  a  number  (if  e\])eriments 
and  is  familiar  to  a  mnnber  of  students  in  this  field  of  work; 
therefore,  they  would  know  just^  where  to  look  for  any  par- 
ticular details  of  an  experiment  in  which  they  are  interested. 

Because  in  these  days  of  standardization,  the  value  of  a  standard 
outline  for  experiments  of  this  kind  will  be  a])preciated. 


22  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

The  outline  worked  out  in  Dr.  Yocum's  Seminar  and  written  up  by  Dr. 
Suhrie  is  given  below  :f 

I.  FORMULATION    OF    A    PROBLEM    FOR    EXPERIMENTA- 

TION.     {Foniiulation)§ 

1.  Introduction. 

a.  A  statement  in  very  general  terms  of  some  controverted  point 

or  of  some  unsolved  problem  in  educational  method.  {Gen- 
eral Statement). 

b.  A  brief  survey  of  experiments  made  in  the  same  general  field 

for  the  scientific  determination  of  the  value  of  factors  in  edu- 
cational method,  and  a  summary  of  results.  {Survey  of  Ex- 
periments Made). 

c.  Difi^erentiation   of   problem   proposed    from  any   or  all   others 

attempted  in  the  same  general  field — or  a  brief  statement  of 
reasons  for  resubmitting  a  problem  to  test.  {Differentiation) 
or  (Reasons  for  Restibniittiiig ). 

2.  Specific  statement  of  problem  so  worded  as  to  clearly  define  the 

field  of  the  experiment  and  isolate  the  factor  to  be  tested. 
{Specific  Statement). 

II.  SELECTION     OF     LABORATORY     FOR     EXPERIMENTS. 

{Selection  of  Laboratory) 

1.  Grades  or  Groups  of  Pupils  selected  and  a  statement  of  reasons  for 

the  particular  choice.      {Groups  Chosen). 

2.  Schools  chosen — because  of:*      {Schools  Chosen). 

a.  General  character  of  student  body — describe. 

b.  Accessibility  to  experimenter. 


fSee  "The  Inductive  Determination  of  Educational  Methods"  by  Ambrose  L. 
Suhrie,  published  by  Warwick  &  York,   Inc.,   Baltimore,   Md. 

§The  headings  in  parenthesis  and  italics  are  not  those  of  Dr.  Suhrie  but  of  the 
writer.  For  the  sake  of  brevity,  these  will  be  used  in  the  experiments  which  fol- 
low, instead  of  the  very  complete  headings  Dr.  Suhrie  has  given. 

*Dr.  Suhrie's  outline  reads  : 

2.     Schools  chosen — because  of  : 

a.  Ideal  external  conditions. 

(i)     General  character  of  student  body — describe. 
(2)     Accessibility  to  experimenter. 

b.  Co-operation    of    supervisory   officers — reasons    for    assuming   this. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  23 

c.  Co-operation  of  all  concerned— reasons  for  assuming  this, 

d.  Any  other  reasons. 

3.     Teacher  in  charge  of  grades  or  groups.     Selected  because:  (Teach- 
ers in  charge). 

a.  Intelligent  with  reference  to  controlling  conditions  of  test,  in 
co-operation  with  experimenter  or  investigator.  Precautions 
taken  to  insure  this. 

■ 

b.  His  scientific  attitude  of  mind.     Reasons  for  believing  this. 

c.  Professionally  interested  in  results  of  test. 

d.  Any  other  reasons.* 

III.  CHOICE  OF  CONDUCTOR  OF  EXPERIMENT.     {Choice  of 

Conductor) 

1.  A  consideration  of  each  of  the  following  agents  or  any  combina- 

tion of  them  collaborating  as  best  adapted  to  the  purposes  of 
the  experiment  and  most  likely  to  secure  valid  results. 

a.  The  investigator — why  or  why  not? 

b.  The  teacher  in  charge  of  the  grade  or  group — why  or  why  not  ? 

c.  The  principal  in  charge  of  a  building — why  or  why  not? 

d.  The  superintendent  in  charge  of  a  system — why  or  why  not? 

e.  Anyone  else — why  or  why  not  ?* 

2.  The  agent  (or  agents)  selected  as  determined  by:  {Agent  selected). 

a.  Ideal  desirability. 

b.  Expediency. 

c.  Necessity. 

IV.  DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  PROCEDURE  FOR  EXPERIMENT. 

(  Dcz'clopincni   uf  Procedure) 

I.     Content — should  include  a  full  consideration  of:  {Content). 


*Added  hv  the  writer. 


24  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

(General  plan  briefly  stated. )$ 

a.  Difficulties  encountered  and  plans  for  overcoming  them.     {Dif- 
ficulties). 

( I  )   f  Tests — pre-preliminary 
preliminary 
equalization 

final 

(2).   Preliminary      conferences      with       school       officials  and 
teachers. 

(3).  Any  other  difficulties.* 

b.  Dates  and  days  on  which  instruction,  drills  or  tests  are  to  be 
given.     (  Time ). 

c.  Time  of  day  when  presentations,  drills  or  tests  are  to  be  given. 

{Period ). 

d.  Subject-matter  to  be  used  as  basis  of  instruction,  drills  or  tests. 

{Subjeef-inatfer ) . 

e.  Details   of   procedure   proposed    for   experimenter   or   his    as- 

sistants in  conducting  the  experiment.     For  example:     {De- 
tails of  procedure) . 

(Details  in  general. )§ 

( T ) .  Copies  of  instruction  to  be  given  to  helpers  with  state- 
ment of  precautions  to  be  observed. 

(2).  Time   limits   fixed    for   periods   of   instruction,   drills   or 
tests — with  ])recautions  to  be  observed. 

(3).   Form,  order,  and  method  of  giving  directions  to  group 
to  be  tested.     Precautions  to  be  observed. 


:j:The  writer  finds  that,  for  the  purpose  of  this  thesis,  it  would  be  well,  in  the 
case  of  some  experiments,  to  include  such  a  plan  at  this  point. 

fAltered  by  the  writer  to  suit  his  particular  needs  in  this  thesis. 
Dr.  Suhrie's  outline  is  : 

(i).  Preliminary  tests  to  find:  (a)  the  "unknown,'  (b)  disturbing  fac- 
tors, (c)  suitable  subject-matter,  (d)  time  limits,  (e)  suitable  labor- 
atory,  (f)   etc. 

*Added  by  the  writer. 

vjlnserted  l)y  the   writer  to  meet  the  needs   in   some  of  the  experiments   given 
in  this  thesis. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  25 

(4).  Record  to  be  made  of: 

(a),  interruptions  to  attention  of  class  or  of  any  con- 
siderable number  of  students  (in  some  cases  of 
even  only  one  or  two)*  by  visitors,  messengers, 
storm  or  rain,  accident,  discipline,  etc. ; 

(b).  weather  conditions  during  each  successive  period 
of  presentations,  drills  or  tests; 

(c).  temperature   of    laboratory    (classroom);, 

(d).  condition  of  ventilation; 

(e).  missteps  in  carrying  out  instructions  by  slight  or 
considerable  variations  in  form  of  a  definitely 
planned  procedure,  as,  for  instance,  the  inver- 
sion of  order  or  the  varying  pronunciation  of 
words. 

Form — A  statement  in  full  detail  and  in  order  of  steps  to  be  taken 
in  the  preparation  and  presentation  of  material  of  test  and  in 
full  conduct  of  experiment.      (Form). 

V.     CONDUCTING   OF   EXPERIMENT.      (Conduciing   of 

Experiment) 

Under  conditions  agreed  upon  with  such  slight  modifications  only 
as  are  made  necessary  by  exigencies  of  a  given  situation. 

I'ull,  detailed,  and  explicit  record — at  the  time — of  all  variations 
from  a])pr()ved  procedure,  together  with  any  observations 
which  might   introduce  varying  factors. 


\"I.     REVIEW  OF  EXPERIMENT  AND  PRELIMINARY 
REPORT.      {Prcliniiiiary  Report) 

1.  A  full  statement  by  experimenter  and  assistants — in  person,  when 

possible — to  Seminar  of  all  information,  whether  recorded  or 
not,  which  has  bearing  direct  or  remote,  upon  interpretation 
of  results  and  validity  of  same. 

2.  Tentative   i-n'line   of   scheme   for  tabulation   of   data   with   sugges- 

ti()n:>  ;.  >  possible  or  significant  correlations  to  be  found,  dia- 
grams 1.  be  made,  and  points  to  be  emphasized  in  formal  re- 
})(>rt  fur  ])ublication. 


*Added  bv  the  writer. 


26  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

VII.     FORMAL  REPORT  AND  PUBLICATION.     (Formal  Report) 

1.  Preparation  of  report  by  individual  or  committee. 

2.  Principles  governing  form  of  report  as  determined  by  the  uses  to 

which  it  is  to  be  put. 

a.  The  abstract 

b.  The  simimary 

c.  The  detailed  report 

3.  Review,  criticism,  and,  if  need  be,  complete  or  partial  revision  by 

Seminar. 

4.  Dissemination  of  the  several  kinds  of  reports  by  most  effective  and 

economical  means,  so  as  to  hasten  the  development  of  a  sci- 
ence of  educational  method  and  favorably  aifect  current  edu- 
cational practice. 

A  development  of  the  outline  jtist  given  is  next  in  order,  but,  before 
proceeding  with  this,  it  might  be  well  to  make  a  few  remarks  on  edu- 
cational experimentation  in  general,  to  afford  a  viewpoint  to  those  who 
are  unfamiliar  with  this  field. 

There  are  several  things  to  be  borne  in  mind  with  regard  to  educational 
experimentation  : 

I.  Educational  experimentation  is  a  new  branch  and  is,  therefore,  un- 
developed and  imperfect,  and  much  remains  to  be  learned  about  it.  Its 
methods  of  procedure  are  not  so  well  established  as  those  of  chemistry 
and  physics  are  at  present,  but  these  sciences  also  made  a  crude  begin- 
ning. 

"  2.  We  must  recognize  our  limits,  which  will,  however,  broaden  from 
time  to  time  as  our  knowledge  of  the  subject  increases.  The  solution  of 
many  problems  is  still  much  beyond  us.  due  to  our  not  being  able  to  con- 
trol all  the  conditions  that  enter.  The  chemist  can  now  control  most 
of  the  conditions  entering  into  his  experiments,  even  to  very  fine  dift"er- 
ences  in  weight,  quantity,  quality,  and  temperature.  By  continued  effort 
we  shall  learn  luore  about  the  material  with  which  we  deal  and  the  laws 
under  wdiich  it  operates. 

3.  The  patience  of  an  Edison  will  be  needed  on  the  part  of  the  experi- 
menter. If  the  type  of  material  which  Edison  handles  requires  10,000  at- 
tempts* before  success  is  attained,  we  can  form  an  idea  as  to  what  is  be- 
fore us  with  at  least  some  experiments.  We  shall  have  to  improve  our 
method  of  procedure  until  our  results  are  constant,  or  until  we  can  sat- 
isfactorily explain  why  they  are  not. 

*See    p.    r. 


1 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  zy 

Two  precautions  sh(,uld  he  kept  constantly  in  niincl  l)y  the  experimen- 
ter : 

1.  We  must  not  hecome  so  enthusiastic  as  to  lose  regard  for  facts.  The 
chief  reason  educational  experimentation  has  come  into  disfavor  is  that 
some  would-be  ex])erimenters  have  tried  something  and,  with  reckless 
■disregard  for  truth,  have  claimed  certain  things  as  a  result.  The  shallow 
thinkers  have  accepted  these  claims  and  have  spread  the  news  as  Gospel 
trntli.  The  careful  thinker  finds  many  flaws  in  the  proof,  and,  if  he  forms 
his  ()])inion  of  educational  experimentation  from  a  case  of  tliis  kind,  he, 
of  corrse,  has  no  i)atience  with  it.  Statistics  are  often  very  carelessly 
compiled  and  are  thus  also  the  cause  for  loss  of  faith  in  the  method.  Some 
people  believe  that  merely  because  figures  are  ])resented  they  cannot  lie, 
but  statisticians  know  better. 

2.  We  must  not,  on  the  other  hand,  become  so  bound  to  the  red  tape  of 
an  experiment  that  we  therebv  shut  out  the  truth.  For  instance,  in  the 
Seminar  at  th.'  L^niversity  of  Pennsylvania  there  was  a  student  who  was 
inclined  to  adhere  absoluely  to  conditions  as  laid  down,  merely  because 
they  were  laid  down  in  the  procedure.  He  did  this,  regardless  of  the  ef- 
fect cr  the  value  of  an  individual  case  ;  e.  g.,  in  a  typewriting  experiment, 
when  it  came  to  the  }Joint  where  we  considered  which  were  the  students 
whose  records  should  be  included  in  the  results,  we  naturally  excluded  all 
those  who  had  been  absent  during  the  period  of  the  experiment — they  did 
not  meet  the-  requirements  laid  down,  one  of  which  was  that  they  had  to 
be  j-.resent.  Then  there  was  brought  up  for  consideration  a  special  case — 
a  boy  who  had  d:ne  absolutely  nothing,  though  he  had  been  present  all 
the  time.  The  rest  of  the  class  hid  worked.  His  record  was  considerably 
below  that  of  anybody's  else,  in  fact,  so  much  so  that  anyone  would  imme- 
diately conclude  that  his  was  a  special  case.  The  rest  of  the  students 
showed  a  uniform  record.  If  he  were  included  in  the  result,  it  would  re- 
duce the  average  of  the  class  considerably.  It  was  contended  that  this 
boy's  record  should  not  be  included  since  he  had  not  done  the  work  prop- 
erly, but  had  simply  gone  through  the  motions  of  it.  By  including  him  we 
should  get  a  perverted  idea  of  the  effect  of  the  work  upon  the  class.  The 
meiuber  of  the  Seminar  in  ([uestion  said,  "He  was  present  every  time  and 
fulfilled  the  conditions  of  the  experiment  and,  therefore,  you  will  have  to 
include  him." 

The  opposite  contention  was  that,  when  dealing  with  a  small  group  of 
pupils,  one  cannot  pronounce  such  a  sua])  judgment.  Though  this  boy  was 
present  each  day  at  the  recitation,  and  though  he  went  through  the  motions 
of  the  recitation,  he  did  not  do  the  work  with  the  same  spirit  as  the  rest 
of  the  class,  and,  therefore,  should  not  be  included.     He  was  abnormal  on 


28  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

the  face  of  the  results  and  abnormal  by  the  judgment  of  the  teacher  wha 
saw  him  day  after  day.  It  would  be  much  more  helpful  to  Education,  it 
would  seem,  to  discard  his  record  entirely,  for  the  other  members  of  the 
class  showed  a  uniform  record.  It  would  be  proper,  of  course,  to  append 
a  note  saying  that  the  results  given  were  for  all  of  the  class  except  one, 
who  did  not  meet  the  conditions  and  then  give  his  record.  If  one  were 
considering  the  averages  of  a  thousand  children,  the  result  would  not  be 
noticeably  affected  by  a  case  of  this  kind,  but,  where  one  considers  the 
average  of  a  small  group,  it  does  figure  considerably  and  should  be 
guarded  against. 

The  term  "ex]:)eriment"  as  used  in  this  thesis  will  be  taken  to  include: 

The  process  of  testing  pupils  in  order  to  obtain  a  norm,  as  for  in- 
stance, in  the  Courtis  Arithmetic  Tests,  so  that  we  can  tell  what 
the  average  attainment  is  for  the  children  of  the  country  in  that 
subject  and  can  make  comparisons. 

The  process  of  trying  to  determine  the  relative  value  of  two  or 
more  methods,  or  the  re-action  of  various  pupils  to  one  method ; 
i.  e.,  varying  one  factor  and  keeping  all  others  constant,  or  compen- 
sating for  or  eliminating  any  that  are  not. 

We  are  now  ready  to  proceed  to  the  development  of  the  outline  men- 
tioned. 

It  is  felt  that  this  should  be  done  before  proceeding  with  the  experi- 
ments, because : 

.    I.  There  are  a  number  of  general  conditions  which  hold  in  most  experi- 
ments and  which,  if  covered  fully  here,  would  avoid  much  repetition. 

2.  It  would  furnish  a  catalogue  of  the  considerations  that  arise  under 
each  heading  in  connection  with  an  educational  experiment. 

Dr.  Suhrie's  complete  headings  will  be  used,  as  well  as  the  shorter  ones 
of  the  writer. 

I.     FOR^IULATION    OF    A    PROBLEM    FOR    EXPERIMENTA- 
TION.     (Formulation) 

1.     Introduction. 

I' 

a.  A  statement  in  very  general  terms  of  some  controverted  point 
or  of  some  unsolved  problem  in  educational  method.  (Gen- 
eral Statement). 

It  would  seem  logical  to  begin  by  stating,  in  a  very  general  way,  some 
controverted  point  or  some  unsolved  problem,  on  which  the  contemplated 
ex]:»eriment  is  expected  to  throw  light.    The  matter  would  be  more  easily 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  29 

understood  by  everyone  if  the  existing  conditions  were  described  in  de- 
tail, the  various  methods  presented,  and  the  claims  stated  that  arc  made 
for  each.  The  flaws  or  alleged  flaws  in  each  of  the  claims  should  be 
pointed  out.  The  experimenter's  ideas  as  to  the  lines  along  which  the  ex- 
periment should  be  made,  might  also  be  given  here. 

For  instance,  in  Typewriting,  on  the  question  of  Speed  and  Accuracy, 
the  present  situation  should  be  stated ;  viz.,  that,  so  far  as  is  known,  there 
is  nothing  but  opinion  to  support  the  methods  used.  Then  the  present 
methods  should  be  given — some  teachers  place  all  the  emphasis  on  accur- 
acy, some  on  speed,  and  some  on  a  combination  of  the  two.  The  claims 
for  each  method  should  be  stated,  and  the  flaws  or  defects  pointed  out 
by  those  using  some  other  method  should  be  mentioned.  The  experimen- 
ter, in  giving  his  ideas  on  the  subject,  might,  in  reviewing  the  situation, 
ask  what  is  the  business  man's  attitude  toward  the  requirements  of  the 
class  room.  Do  his  requirements  throw  out  any  of  the  methods  under 
consideration  ?    How  can  we  obtain  what  he  wants  ? 

It  might  be  well  for  the  experimenter  to  add  whether  or  not,  in  his  opin- 
ion, there  really  is  a  valid  question  here,  and  to  give  his  reasons. 

Sometimes  it  might  be  well  to  review  at  this  point,  the  historical  side  of 
the  question. 

Possibly  our  first  difficulty  will  be  to  analyze  properly  the  situation  in 
hand  and  pick  out  the  elements  for  which  we  want  to  test.  A  teacher  may 
feel  that  there  is  something  about  a  method  which  is  not  just  as  it  should 
be,  and  }"et  he  cannot  make  the  matter  clear  enough  to  anyone  else  to  sug- 
gest a  remedy.  Then  again,  he  may  know  just  what  is  wrong,  or  where 
the  trouble  lies,  but  have  difificulty  in  finding  a  remedy.  Or,  he  may  know 
just  what  the  situation  is  and  be  able  to  explain  it,  he  may  know  just  what 
must  be  done,  but  he  may  not  know  of  any  way  of  isolating  the  elements 
for  which  he  must  test  in  making  the  experiment.  A  discussion  of  these 
points  might  find  place  here. 

Under  this  heading  it  was  intended  that  the  situation  should  be  dis- 
cussed in  the  Seminar  so  as  to  have  the  benefit  of  group  judgment  in  ana- 
lyzing the  conditions  and  isolating  the  proi)er  factor  which  is  sought  in  the 
test. 

b.  A  brief  survey  of  the  experiments  made  in  the  same  general 
field  for  the  scientific  determination  of  the  value  of  factors  in 
educational  method  and  a  summary  of  the  results.  (Survey 
of  Experiments  Made). 

Of  course,  it  is  only  proper  that  a  scientific  undertaking  should  con- 
sider efiforts  that  have  been  made  along  the  same  line. 

A  question  that  will  confront  a  person  making  up  such  a  list  is  whether 


30  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

or  not  he  should  include  all  attempts  or  only  the  valid  attempts.  One  will 
find  that  many  people,  even  educators  and  university  department  heads, 
do  not  understand  what  is  meant  by  the  term  "experiment,"  as  was  proved 
by  some  replies  to  the  letter  on  p.  6.  One  may  find,  if  he  writes  for  a 
list  of  the  experiments  in  a  given  field,  that  there  will  be  included  some 
things  that  he  would  not  call  an  experiment,  let  alone  a  valid  one.  It  does 
not  seem  wise  to  spend  much  time  in  determining  what  to  include  and 
what  to  exclude.  The  better  policy  would  call  for  the  inclusion  of  every- 
thing that  has  even  the  semblance  of  an  experiment,  leaving  it  to  the  read- 
er to  determine  whether  or  not  the  thing  in  question  has  any  use  in  solving 
his  problem.  This  policy  will  keep  before  us  some  undertakings  which 
may  at  some  time  throw  light  on  other  points.  Sometimes  they  at  least 
point  the  way  to  the  things  that  should  be  avoided.  It  is  easier  to  discard 
what  we  do  not  want,  than  to  seek  for  something  that  has  been  lost. 

Bibliographies  of  some  experiments  are  beginning  to  appear,  which 
should  be  consulted. 

Information  concerning  unlisted  experiments  could  be  obtained  from 
the  various  universities  conducting  experimental  work  of  this  kind. 

Some  of  the  Research  and  Test  Bureaus  of  the  more  progressive  educa- 
tional systems  conduct  experiments  and  might  be  consulted. 

It  would  seem  that,  in  this  survey  of  experiments  already  made,  the  fol- 
lowing information  should  be  given  concerning  each : 

Name  or  nature  of  the  experiment 

By  whom  conducted 

Under  what  auspices   (university,  etc.) 

Where  made 

When  made 

Where  the  complete  report  is  to  be  found 

Results  briefly  stated 

Comments  on  the  results,  if  deemed  advisable. 

c.  Dififerentiation  of  the  problem  proposed,  from  any  and  all 
others  attempted  in  the  same  general  field — or  a  brief  state- 
ment of  reasons  for  resubmitting  the  problem  to  test.  (  Dif- 
ferentiation— Reasons   for   Resubmitting). 

If  the  experiment  in  mind  diiTers  from  the  ones  already  tried,  it  would 
be  in  order  to  state  the  diiTerence.  Or.  if  the  experiment  is  the  same,  it 
would  seem  logical  to  give  some  reasons  for  doing  it  over  again.  The  rea- 
sons may  not  at  once  be  apparent  to  the  reader  and.  therefore,  should  be 
stated  plainly.  Sometimes  a  flaw  is  later  discovered  in  the  method  or  in 
the  carr\ing  out  of  the  method,  and  this  mav  necessitate  its  resubmission. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  3E 

For  instance,  it  may  be  discovered  later  that  a  serious  clerical  error,  which, 
cannot  now  be  corrected,  was  made  in  reporting  the  results  of  the  exper- 
iment ;  or  it  may  be  discovered  that  a  teacher  or  several  teachers  did  not 
carry  out  the  instructions  properly  and  feared  to  hazard  their  positions, 
by  letting  this  be  known  before  the  report  of  the  experiment  was  made. 

2.  Specific  statement  of  the  problem  so  worded  as  to  clearly  de- 
fine the  field  of  the  experiment  and  isolate  the  factor  to  be 
tested.      (Specific   Statement). 

Here  should  be  given  a  very  definite  statement  of  the  problem  under- 
taken. This  should  be  very  carefully  worded  so  that  the  exact  scope  and 
field  of  the  experiment  will  be  clear. 


II.     SELECTION     OF     LABORATORY     FOR    EXPERIMENTA- 
TION.     (Selection  of  Laboratory) 

I.     Grade  or  groups  of  children  selected  and  a  statement  of  rea- 
sons for  the  particular  choice. 

Under  this  heading  should  be  determined  what  classes  or  groups  of 
pupils  are  considered  the  proper  ones  as  subjects  for  the  experiment.  Very 
few  experiments  can  be  tried  on  all  classes.  There  are  usually  some  rea- 
sons why  one  particular  class  is  the  best  for  the  experiment. 

Some  of  the  important  considerations  follow : 

The  experiment  may  require  that  we  select : 

1.  Pupils  of  a  certain  class — kindergarten  class,  ist  to  8th  grades, 

some  secondary  school  class,  some  post-secondary  school  class. 

2.  Pupils  taking  a  certain  subject. 

3.  Pupils  of  a  certain  age. 

4.  Pupils  of  a  certain  maturity. 

5.  l'ui)ils  of  a  certain  general  intelligence. 

6.  Pupils  having  received  certain  marks. 

7.  Pupils  alphabetically  arranged. 

8.  Pupils  having  a  certain  environment. 

9.  i'upils  having  equal  ability  in  a  subject. 

10.  Pupils  having  a  certain  ability  to  understand  the  English  lan- 
guage. 

11.  Pupils  having  the  same  teacher. 


32  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

12.  Pupils  having  a  certain  teacher. 

13.  Pupils  of  the  only  grade  that  seems  fit  for  the  subject-matter 
of  the  experiment. 

14.  Pupils  of  one  sex. 

15.  Pupils  of  the  only  grade  available  for  experimentation. 

1.  We  may  decide  to  take  the  pupils  in  any  one  or  more  of  cur  reg- 
ular classes  as  we  find  them  in  the  kindergarten,  or  in  any  of  the  eight 
grades,  or  in  the  junior  or  the  regular  high  school,  or  in  the  normal  school, 
college  or  university. 

2.  Or  we  may  want  to  take  special  groups  within  any  of  these  classes, 
or  groups  made  up  of  a  combination  of  any  of  the  classes.  If  we  were 
seeking  a  norm,  as,  for  instance,  in  typewriting,  we  should  want  the  reg- 
ular classes  in  typewriting,  just  as  they  are  organized,  which  may  not  coin- 
cide with  the  regular  senior  class,  junior  class,  etc. 

A  choice  of  beginners  in  a  subject,  might  call  forth  some  pupils  from  the 
senior,  junior,  sophomore,  and  freshman  classes  in  a  high  school  where  the 
■elective  system  is  much  in  vogue.  The  same  thing  would  happen  if  inter- 
mediates in  a  subject  were  desired,  or  advanced  pupils. 

The  experiment  might  require  us  to  rule  out  those  w^ho  are  repeating  the 
subject,  thus  breaking  up  the  regular  class  formation.  We  might  have  to 
rule  out  those  who  had  previous  contact  with  a  subject,  as  in  bookkeeping, 
because  some  of  the  students  worked  in  an  office  during  the  summer  va- 
cation;  or  in  typewriting,  due  to  some  of  the  students  having  "picked  it 
up"  themselves. 

Sometimes  the  only  reason  we  have  for  taking  a  certain  grade  or  class 
is  because  the  subject  under  consideration  is  taught  there. 

Sometimes  it  is  because  the  experiment  must  be  made  at  a  certain  stage 
in  the  subject  and  the  grade  chosen  is  the  one  in  which  the  work  is  being 
done. 

3.  Pupils  of  a  certain  age  might  be  desired,  which  would  take  them 
from  the  various  regular  class  groups  mentioned  on  p.  31  under  i. 

4.  Pupils  of  a  certain  maturity  might  be  desired,  which  would  have 
like  efifect. 

5.  This  would  also  be  true  if  pupils  of  a  certain  general  intelligence 
were  wanted. 

6.  It  may  be  that  the  previous  marks  are  to  be  used  as  a  basis,  either 
the  marks  in  general  or  in  a  particular  subject — the  marks  for  one  year,  or 
more,  or  less ;  or  it  may  be  the  marks  from  one  teacher  or  from  a  group  of 
teachers.* 


*See  Equalization  tests,  p.  50. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  33 

7.  It  may  be  necessary  to  divide  the  pupils  of  a  class  into  two  or  more 
sections  alphabetically. 

8.  It  may  be  necessary  to  choose  pnpils  having  a  certain  environment, 
either  at  home  or  on  the  streets,  or  in  school,  etc. 

9.  It  may  be  necessaray  so  to  choose  the  groups  that  all  sections  will 
start  on  an  equal  basis,  so  far  as  the  experiment  is  concerned. $ 

For  instance,  it  would  not  do  to  put  into  one  section  a  larger  number 
of  pupils  better  adapted  to  the  work,  than  into  another  section.  They 
might  be  brighter,  more  industrious,  more  energetic,  more  co-operative, 
etc.  One  can  readily  see,  without  any  argument,  that  if  the  A  Section  con- 
tains all  of  the  industrious  pupils  and  the  B  Section  has  the  laggards,  the 
A  Section  will  by  all  means  show  the  better  results.  A  test  at  the  end  of 
the  given  period  will  not  necessarily  show  the  result  of  the  method  em- 
ployed with  the  A  Section  as  compared  with  the  method  employed  with 
the  B  Section,  but  will,  in  all  probability,  show  the  result  of  the  applica- 
tion of  the  pupils  of  the  one  group  as  compared  with  the  lack  of  applica- 
tion of  the  pupils  of  the  other  group.  Even  if  the  methods  are  reversed 
(and  this  is  a  good  way  to  verify  the  validity  of  the  results),  and  the  one 
which  was  used  on  the  A  Section  is  now  used  on  the  B  Section,  and  vice 
versa,  it  is  altogether  likely  that  the  A  Section  would  still  show  the  bet- 
ter results.  Right  here  we  have  the  big  flaw  in  most  experiments.  How 
can  we  tell  that  both  sections  are  at  the  same  starting  point  in  relation  to 
the  experiment  in  hand  ?  How  can  we  tell  that  the  one  section  does  not 
have  certain  advantages  over  the  other  at  the  start,  which  predestine  it  10 
make  a  better  showing,  no  matter  what  the  method  employed  is? 

Most  people  will  grant  that  where  extreme  conditions  exist,  as  in  the 
case  given,  there  is  no  valid  experiment,  but  some  are  not  so  willing  tO' 
grant  that  there  is  a  difference  worth  noting  in  a  group  known  as  "bright"" 
students.  Some  people  would  not  even  grant  that  there  is  a  difference  be- 
tween those  that  one  teacher  considers  bright  and  those  that  another  con- 
siders bright.  Such  a  basis  for  equalizing  classes  is  altogether  too  un- 
scientific. We  cannot  simi)ly  take  a  group  of  pupils  whom  the  teachers 
consider  the  bright  ones,  jjut  half  into  one  section  and  half  into  another 
section  and  feel  content  that  we  have  equalized  sections. 

One  often  has  trouble  in  determining  on  what  basis  the  groups  should 
be  equalized.  For  instance,  in  typewriting  one  would  pronounce  an  a 
priori  judgment  that  the  student  who  plays  the  piano  has  an  advantage 
over  those  who  do  not  in  learning  typewriting,  because  his  fingers  are  sup- 
ple from  the  piano  ])ractice.     Yet.  this  student  may  make  a  poor  typist. 


JSee  Equalization  tests,  p.  49ff. 


34  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

This  should  be  made  the  subject  of  a  thorough  mvestigation.    The  records 
of  the  West  Chester  High  School  show  the  following: 


Those 

of  very 

No. 

No. 

No.  who 

high  speed 

No.    in 

No 

.  pass- 

who play 

not  pass 

-   play 

not 

Class    A — 

Class 

ing- 

piano 

ing- 

piano 

piano 

piano 

Present  year  . . . 

31 

23 

9 

8 

1 

3 

2 

Last     year     .... 

25 

21 

7 

4 

1 

1 

3 

Year   before    . . . 

29 

29 

9 

0 

0 

1 

1 

Class    B     

17 

11 

3 

6 

1 

Class   C    

26 

23 

1 

3 

2 

Class   D    

29 

19 

4 

10 

0 

H  we  have  a  norm  for  the  subject  under  consideration,  our  troubles 
will  be  relieved  considerably  by  applying  the  norm  and  forming  our  sec- 
tions according  to  it. 

In  the  absence  of  a  norm,  we  must  devise  some  tests  which  will  equalize 
our  sections.  Much  difficulty  will  usually  be  experienced  here.  We  should 
give  these  as  pre-preliminary*  tests,  to  see  whether  or  not  they  actually 
give  us  a  method  of  equalizing.  A  great  deal  of  effort  must  be  put  on 
these  tests.  When  we  have  found  a  valid  method,  it  can  be  used  as  an 
equalization  test. 

It  may  be  necessary  in  a  typewriting  class  to  ecjualize  the  sections  on  the 
basis  of  speed.  It  may  be  necessary  to  equalize  the  sections  of  another 
class  according  to  their  ability  in  any  of  the  elements  that  make  up  the 
subject-matter  to  be  studied  ;  for  instance,  in  typewriting,  limberness  of 
fingers  ;  in  advanced  bookkeeping,  a  knowledge  of  debits  and  credits. 

Equalization  would  not  ordinarily  be  necessary  when  dealing  with  thou- 
sands, as  the  large  number  would  absorb  individual  inequalities.  This,  of 
course,  could  not  be  true  in  a  small  group. 

10.  In  a  school  containing  many  foreign-born  pupils,  it  ma}'  be  neces- 
sary to  group  them  according  to  their  ability  to  understand  the  English 
language. 

11.  The  experiment  may  require  two  or  more  sections  taught  by  the 
same  teacher.  These  conditions  will  often  determine  our  choice  by  neces- 
sity. The  matter  of  the  personality  of  teachers  enters  to  such  an  extent, 
that  success  or  failure  of  classes  often  can  be  traced  almost  wholly  to 
this  factor.  "The  individuality  of  the  teacher  may  affect  results  more 
strongly  than  variation  in  the  method  that  is  being  investigated. "f  There- 
fore, it  is  often  best  for  one  teacher  to  take  all  sections  of  a  class  in  an  ex- 
periment. 


*See  p.  48ff. 

fFrom  Dr.   Yocum's   "Precautions,  etc.,  needed   to  the  Validity  of  an   Experi- 
ment." 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION 


35 


12.  Sometimes  we  may  choose  to  take  a  certain  group  because  their 
regular  teacher  is  the  one  best  fitted  in  the  school  for  conducting  experi- 
ments of  this  kind,  or  because  the  experimenter  is  the  teacher  and  wishes 
to  observe  the  work  himself. 

13.  Sometimes  we  may  have  to  take  a  certain  grade  or  class  because  the 
subject-matter  seems  best  to  fit  that  grade. 

14.  Occasionall}'  we  desire  to  know  whether  or  not  there  is  any  differ- 
ence in  the  way  a  certain  method  or  subject  affects  the  boys  and  the  girls. 
In  that  case  we  would  choose  on  the  basis  of  sex. 

15.  Not  infrecjuently  we  must  take  a  certain  grade  or  class  because  it 
is  the  only  one  available  for  the  experiment.  If  the  conditions  seem  to 
indicate  that  this  will  not  be  a  serious  drawback,  it  might  be  advisable  to 
try  the  experiment,  in  order  to  see  what  results  one  actually  does  get  under 
the  circumstances.  A  full  statement  of  conditions  should  always  accom- 
pany the  results,  however,  so  that  no  one  will  be  misled  and  no  unwar- 
ranted conclusions  be  spread  broadcast. 

2.     Schools  Chosen — because  of:      (Schools  Chosen). 

In  choosing  the  schools  best  suited  for  the  experiment  in  mind,  we  may 
select : 

1.  Schools  of  a  certain  grade — elementary,  secondary,  or  higher. 

2.  Schools  of  a  certain  tyj)* — business,  normal,  or  art. 

3.  Schools  of  a  certain  type — public  or  private. 

4.  Schools  having  pupils  of  a  certain  maturity. 
Schools  having  certain  types  of  pupils: 

5.  high,  medium,  or  low. 

6.  American  or  foreign. 

7.  white,  colored,  red.  or  yellow. 

8.  industrious  or  lazy. 

9.  Schools  in  a  certain  type  of  town. 

10.  Schools  having  juipils  from  certain  sections  of  the  community. 

11.  Schools  to  which  the  experimenter  has  access. 

12.  School  or  schools  in  which  the  experimenter  is  a  teacher. 

13.  Schools  where  the  pupils  are  not  antagonistic  to  experiments, 
but  decidedly  co-operative. 

14.  Schools  where  the  administrative  conditions  are  good,  or  bet- 
ter than  elsewhere. 


36  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

15.  Schools  having  the  best  laboratory  facilities. 

16.  Schools  where  the  teachers  are  known  by  the  experimenter. 

17.  Schools  nearest  at  hand. 

18.  Schools  designated  by  the  school  authorities. 

19.  Any  school  or  schools. 

20.  The  only  school  or  schools  available. 

a.  General   Character  of   Student   Body — Describe. 

1.  It  may  be  necessary  to  choose  an  elementary,  secondary,  or  higher 
school — kindergarten,  grade  school,  regular  high  school,  junior  or  senior 
high  school,  junior  college  or  regular  college,  or  university. 

2.  It  may  be  necessary  to  choose  a  school  because  of  the  general 
maturity  of  its  students. 

3.  It  may  be  necessary  to  choose  a  special  type  of  school  like  a  normal 
school,  business  school,  art  school,  or  trade  school,  because  of  the  work 
or  type  of  pupils. 

4.  One  may  have  to  decide  between  a  public  and  a  private  school,  be- 
cause of  the  difference  in  the  character  of  the  student  body.  It  may  have 
to  be  a  choice  between  the  academy  and  the  high  school. 

5.  The  School  may  be  chosen  because  the  type  of  student  wanted  is 
high,  low,  or  medium,  or  because  the  student  body  is  considered  a  normal 
one,  or  a  superior  or  an  inferior  one,  either  by  people  who  know  and  have 
grounds  for  their  judgment  or  by  hearsay. 

6.  A  certain  school  may  be  chosen  because  it  has  a  high  type  of  Ameri- 
can child  or  because  it  has  a  foreign  element. 

7.  A  school  may  be  selected  because  it  is  one  for  white  or  colored 
children,  for  the  Red  Indian  or  for  the  Yellow  Oriental  children. 

8.  It  may  be  because  the  pupils  in  that  school  do  good  work  or  do  poor 
work ;    or  because  they  are  industrious  or  are  likely  to  be  lazy. 

9.  It  may  be  because  the  school  is  in  an  industrial,  a  mining,  a  milling, 
or  a  residential  town. 

10.  It  may  be  because  the  pupils  enrolled  come  from  the  industrial 
section  of  the  town  or  from  the  residential  section. 

b.  Accessibility  to  experimenter. 

11.  A  school  may  be  chosen  because  the  experimenter  has  access  to  it. 

12.  It  may  be  because  the  experimenter  is  a  teacher  or  an  officer  there. 
A  general  condition  that  applies  to  all  experiments  is  that  the  school 

should  be  accessible  to  the   experimenter,  either   personally,   through   a 
representative,  or  through  the  mails — in  other  words,  that  there  should 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  37 

l)e  no  obstacles  put   in   the   way  of   his   freely   coniniunicating   with  the 
people  who  are  conducting  the  experiment. 

The  only  way  an  experimenter  has  of  knowing  that  the  plans  laid  down 
for  the  experiment  are  being  carried  out  is  by  ascertaining  how  the  work 
is  progressing,  and  being  able  to  get  into  touch  with  the  people  conducting 
the  work,  in  order  to  make  matters  clear. 

In  some  experiments  the  conditions  are  so  complicated  that  it  would  be 
difficult  to  explain  the  whole  matter  through  written  instructions,  and  a 
personal  conference  with  the  teachers  is  very  desirable,  if  not  absolutely 
necessary. 

In  other  cases,  however,  wdiere  the  experiment  is  purely  routine,  this 
is  not  so  necessary,  as  the  instructions  can  be  written  and  handed  to  the 
teachers.  Any  teacher,  sufficiently  intelligent  to  carry  on  the  experiment, 
ought  to  be  able  to  read  the  instructions  in  such  a  case  and  understand 
them. 

Sometimes  it  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  experimenter  himself  to 
conduct  the  experiment,  and  in  such  cases,  of  course,  he  should  have  the 
perfect  freedom  of  the  school  and  be  able  to  reach  the  school  as  often  as 
the  conduct  of  the  experiment  requires.  This  would  apply  in  cases  where 
a  very  complicated  or  highly  technical  procedure  is  necessary. 

In  the  case  of  a  personal  conference,  of  course,  the  school  should  be 
accessible  to  the  experimenter  in  a  geographical  sense ;  that  is,  it  should 
be  sufficiently  near  at  hand  for  him  to  api)ear  in  person  ;  but  just  as  e(|ually 
im])ortant  is  it  that  the  authorities  do  not  block  matters  by  forbidding  him 
to  enter  the  building.  We  all  know  how  stubborn  some  school  authorities 
have  become,  and  the  report  of  an  experiment  should  contain  a  definite 
statement  that  the  school  was  or  was  not  accessible  according  to  these 
various  meanings. 

In  the  case  where  written  instructions  are  all  that  arc  necessary,  the 
school  should  be  accessible  to  the  experimenter  in  the  sense  that  when  he 
sends  the  written  instructions  through  the  mail  or  otherwise,  the  principal, 
or  the  person  to  whom  he  addresses  them,  will  see  that  they  are  delivered 
to  the  proper  teachers  in  due  time. 

If  the  experimenter  lived  in  San  Francisco,  and  it  was  a  very  compli- 
cated experiment  that  rec[uired  several  conferences,  and  the  experiment 
was  to  be  conducted  in  Philadelphia,  it  would  be  plainly  evident  that  he 
could  not  come  to  Philadeli)hia  very  often,  wliich  fact  may  bring  about  in- 
valid results  through  misunderstandings.  If  he  does  come  to  Philadelphia 
as  often  as  is  necessary  to  make  matters  clear,  that  fact  should  be  definite- 
ly stated  (saying  just  how  often  the  visits  were  made),  so  that  complete 


38  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

information  is  at  hand  in  case  matters  do  not  work  out  properly  and  the 
cause  therefore  is  sought. 

In  some  experiments  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  experimenter  to  hold 
several  conferences  with  the  teachers  who  are  conducting  the  experiment. 
Of  course,  conditions  will  have  to  be  such  that  this  can  be  done.  If  a  very 
complicated  procedure  or  a  very  indefinite  procedure  is  mapped  out,  and 
the  teachers  cannot  keep  in  touch  with  the  experimenter  to  have  disputed 
points  cleared  up,  it  is  very  doubtful  that  the  experiment  is  going  to  be  car- 
ried out  so  as  to  insure  valid  results.  All  the  necessary  conferences  should 
be  held  with  the  persons  concerned  and  a  statement  to  that  eflfect  should 
be  made  in  reporting  the  experiment  so  that  the  matter  will  not  be  left  in 
doubt.  One  slip  in  any  of  the  conditions  may  make  the  results  invalid.  If 
they  are  invalid,  we  want  to  know  it,  so  that  we  can  tell  whether  our  meth- 
od of  procedure  is  wrong  or  whether  the  trouble  lies  in  the  conduct  of  the 
experiment. 

The  experimenter  may  train  a  corps  of  workers  and  send  them  out  over 
the  country  to  conduct  the  experiment,  when  complicated  procedure  is 
involved  and  one  person  cannot  do  it  all. 

In  some  experiments  the  experimenter  will  have  to  be  present  in  order 
to  be  certain  that  the  instructions  are  being  carried  out  just  as  he  intended. 
This  is  necessary  in  very  complicated  ones,  and  in  those  in  which  unex- 
pected re-actions  are  likely  to  take  place  where  a  quick  decision  as  to  the 
course  of  procedure  will  have  to  be  made.  Naturally  only  he,  because  he 
knows  most  about  the  experiment,  will  be  able  to  render  a  wise  judgment. 

In  the  exi)eriments  recorded,  where  the  conditions  just  envmierated  hold, 
a  mere  statement  that  the  school  should  be  accessible  to  the  experimenter 
will  be  made,  together  with  a  reference  to  this  section. 

c.     Co-operation  of  All  Concerned — Reasons  for  Assuming  This.  (Co- 
operation ) . 

It  may  be  necessary  to  find  schools  where  the  pupils  are  not  antagonis- 
tic to  experimentation,  Init  decidedly  co-operative. 

14.  It  may  be  that  schools  are  recjuired  where  the  administrative  con- 
ditions are  good,  or  better  than  elsewhere. 

One  essential  in  every  experiment  is  that  there  should  be  the  necessary 
co-operation  on  the  part  of  the  class,  the  teacher,  the  principal,  the  super- 
visory officers,  the  superintendent,  and  the  investigator  or  experimenter — 
in  short,  on  the  part  of  everybody  concerned  in  the  experiment. 

A  long  explanation  as  to  the  necessity  of  this  is  hardly  called  for.  One 
can  readily  see  that,  no  matter  how  carefully  an  experiment  is  planned, 
valid  results  can  hardly  be  expected,  if  the  teacher  refuses  to  carry  it  out 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  39 

properly,  or  shows  b\  her  attitude  that  she  does  not  care  whether  the 
work  is  done  properly  or  not.  Or  the  class  may  become  antagonistic  and 
will  carry  out  the  instructions  only  formally,  if  even  that  much ;  or  may, 
just  for  sheer  contrariness,  put  down  the  wrong  answers,  as  is  often  done 
in  questionnaires  ;  or  the  principal,  or  superintendent,  or  supervisory  officers 
may  interfere  and  raise  objections  to  one  part  of  the  experiment  and  may 
not  permit  another  part  of  it  to  be  carried  out,  or  may  create  an  unfavor- 
able atmosphere  in  the  class  room,  etc. 

Neither  is  it  worth  while  to  experiment  in  a  school  where  the  powers 
that  be.  or  the  teachers,  are  opposed  to  experimental  methods.  We  all 
know  of  types  of  principals,  superintendents,  supervisors,  and  teachers, 
who  are  very  much  opposed  to  anything  called  progressive — anything  dif- 
ferent from  what  they  have  been  accustomed  to  for  years.  It  is  not 
worth  while  in  those  schools  whose  teachers,  either  through  failure,  or 
exceptional  success  without  knowing  why  they  have  had  success,  con- 
clude that  teaching  is  simply  a  complicated  problem,  which  can  never  be 
disentangled,  and  that  these  experiments  are  useless ;  or  in  those  whose 
teachers  are  so  material  that,  while  they  can  readily  see  how  a  person  can 
analyze  a  chemical  compound,  they  cannot  see  how  the  psychical  elements 
can  be  isolated  for  experimentation.  Where  persons  absolutely  oppose 
this  type  of  investigation,  it  is  questionable  w^iether  the  experiment  wall 
be  conducted  properly  or  not. 

Co-operation  on  the  part  of  the  students*  is  also  absolutely  necessary. 
Otherwise  the  resuhs  will  be  invalid.  The  freshman  of  the  West  Chester 
High  School  were  given  the  Otis  intelligence  test  in  1919  under  conditions 
which  made  the  students  decidedly  antagonistic  and  affected  the  results. 
11ie  class  was  divided  into  two  sections.  Much  time  was  lost  in  con- 
ducting the  test  WMth  the  first  section,  which  made  the  second  section  late 
in  starting  the  test.  Before  completing  it,  the  dismissal  ])cll  rang.  The 
students  became  very  uneasy  but  were  required  to  finish  the  work.  On 
ciuestioning  some  of  them  the  next  day  they  said  they  did  not  care  what 
they  put  down,  they  "wantefl  to  get  out."  The  results  of  that  test  cannot 
be  counted  as  valid.  They  cannot  show  a  true  state  of  affairs  wi'h  regard 
to  the  freshmen  of  that  high  school,  and  yet  the  experimenter  intended 
to  use  them  as  such  at  one  of  our  Eastern  universities,  despite  all  ]:iro- 
tests  to  the  contrary. 

Numerous  other  examples  could  be  given,  but  it  is  believed  that  the 
reader  sees  the  absolute  necessity  for  co-operation,  without  going  into 
the  matter  further. 

If  it  should  happen  that,  in  the  conduct  of  an  experiment,  any  lack  of 

*See  p.   54. 


40  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

co-operation  becomes  evident,  an  explicit  note,  stating  just  what  form  it 
takes  and  to  what  extent  it  has  interfered  with  the  experiment,  should 
be  made,  so  that  the  matter  may  be  borne  in  mind  when  the  results  are 
considered. 

Reasons  for  assuming  that  this  co-operation  exists  should  be  given ; 
e.  g..  the  spoken  or  written  promises  to  that  effect,  attitude  and  actions 
in  preliminary  meetings  and  throughout  the  test,  professional  inter- 
est of  the  persons  involved,  such  as  taking  university  courses  in  the  sub- 
ject, progressive  attitude  along  educational  lines,  attitude  in  previous  simil- 
ar experiments,  etc.  These  persons  may  be  conducting  experiments  them- 
selves. It  may  be  that  they  are  in  the  department  of  the  school  system 
which  regularly  does  this  work. 

Nothing  should  be  left  in  doubt.  It  is  better  to  err  by  inserting  too  much 
detail  in  the  report  than  not  enough.  \Miat  now  appears  to  be  useless  de- 
tail in  a  report  of  this  kind,  may  some  day  help  to  solve  a  question  raised. 

As  this  applies  to  all  experiments,  the  mere  fact  that  co-operation  is 
necessary  will  be  stated  in  the  experiments  that  follow,  and  a  reference 
will  be  made  to  this  section  for  further  detail,  in  order  to  save  unnecessary 
bulk  in  printing. 

d.     Any  Other  Reasons. 

15.  A  school  may  be  chosen  because  it  has  the  proper  laboratory  fa- 
cilities. 

16.  It  may  be  because  the  experimenter  knows  the  teachers  at  that 
school,  and  can  vouch  for  their  attitude  toward  the  matter  in  hand. 

17.  A  school  may  be  chosen  because  of  the  proximity  of  its  location, 
making  it  possible  for  the  experimenter  to  have  personal  conferences  with 
the  teachers  who  are  to  conduct  the  work. 

18.  A  certain  school  may  be  chosen  because  there  is  an  understanding 
wath  the  school  authorities  to  use  that  school,  or  there  may  be  permission 
from  headquarters  to  do  so,  implying  that  other  schools  may  not  be  used. 
It  may  be  that  the  school  board  has  given  permission  to  have  the  experi- 
ment tried  there. 

It  may  be  difficult  to  find  a  school  or  schools  where  the  experiment  can 
be  given,  because  the  school  authorities  object  to  experimenting  on  general 
grounds. 

Or  it  may  be  that  the  objection  is  raised  because  there  is  too  much  at 
stake.  If  the  plan  does  not  seem  very  plausible,  it  may  happen  that  one 
section  of  the  class  advances  faster  than  the  other  and  then  there  is  that 
deficiency  to  be  made  up,  because  of  which  the  authorities  would  not  want 
to  have  it  tried  on  any  great  number  of  students.  Or  it  may  be  that 
seniors  in  high  school  are  the  students  to  take  the  work.     Each  senior' 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION 


41 


iiui  ^t  reach  a  certain  standard  in  order  to  graduate.  Even  a  short  period 
required  for  an  experiment  might  throw  one  or  hoth  sections  so  far  he- 
hind  that  it  is  only  with  the  greatest  (hfhcuhy  that  tlie  work  could  he  made 
lip  he  fore  graduation. 

The  time  required  for  an  experiment  may  he  over  too  long  a  period, 
and  the  authorities  may  feel  that  they  cannot  very  well  consent  to  the  loss 
of  that  time  hy  experimentation. 

While  they  might  grant  that  it  would  he  a  gain  to  the  students  as  a  whole, 
it  might  be  a  loss  to  certain  students,  and  they  might  not  feel  justihed  in 
attempting  it  because  of  this. 

19.  Any  school  or  schools  may  he  chosen  as  .in  the  case  of  standardized 
tests,  where  it  is  the  object  to  obtain  the  status  of  things  under  conditions 
as  they  exist. 

20.  A  school  may  be  chosen  because  it  is  the  only  one  available,  either 
for  tlie  purpose,  or  to  the  experimenter. 

3.     Teachers    in    Charge    of    Grades    or    Groups.     Selected    because : 
(  Teachers  Chosen  ) . 
A  teacher  may  he  chosen  because: 


a.  I.  Of  her  intelligence. 
2.  Of  her  co-operation. 

b.  3.  Of  her  scientihc  attitude  of  mind. 

c.  4.  Of  her  i)rofessional  attitude. 

5.  The  sttulents  have  confidence  in  her  al)ility. 

d.  6.     The   group   has   been   chosen   by   II-i    and   the   regular 

teacher  must  take  charge  of  the  grout). 

7.     She   has   sufficient   resourcefulness   to    handle    two   sec- 
tions usin<r  different  methods. 


8. 
9- 


a. 


She  has   foresight  enough  to  notice  varying  conditions. 

Because  the  students  are  familiar  with  her  and  if  some- 
one else  were  to  conduct  the  work,  there  would  be  a 
disturbing  element  introduced  which  might  affect  the 
results. 

intelligent  with  reference  to  controlling  conditions  of  test, 
in  co-operation  with  experimenter  or  investigator.  Pre- 
cautions taken  to  insure  this. 


I.     If  a  teacher  is  to  conduct  the  experiment,  she*  should  be  the  best 


*She — generic. 


42  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

teacher  available  for  the  purpose.  She  should  be  sufficiently  intelligent  to 
understand  the  experiment  thoroughly,  and  capable  of  mastering  all  the 
details.  She  should  be  thoroughly  capable  of  breaking  away  from  her 
trodden  path  and  carrying  out  the  lesson  in  accordance  with  a  new  idea. 
She  should  not  be  "sot  in  her  ways." 

She  should  be  one  who  can  thoroughly  grasp  the  importance  of  the  ex- 
periment and  the  idea  contained  in  it. 

2.  She  ought  to  be  capable  of  co-operating  with  the  experimenter  and 
willing  to  co-operate,  by  actions  as  well  as  by  words. 

The  necessity  for  co-operation  is  given  on  p.  38  11. 

b.  Scientific  attitude  of  mind. — Reasons  for  believing  this. 

3.  She  should  be  a  teacher  with  the  scientific  attitude ;  that  is,  she- 
should  be  one  who  takes  the  stand  that,  while  we  do  not  know  everything 
in  Education  at  present,  we  shall  know  a  great  deal  more  if  we  keep  study- 
ing the  subject.  She  must  be  one  who  believes  that,  out  of  the  tangle  of 
conditions  found  in  the  class  room,  we  ought  to  be  able  to  pick  the  separate 
threads  and  by  diligent,  careful  experimenting,  to  be  able  to  get  some 
light  on  the  subject.  She  should  be  open-minded  and  not  prejudiced  in 
any  way,  and  should  be  willing  to  throw  overboard  her  pet  theories  if 
they  are  wrong,  and  she  ought  not  to  be  unwilling  to  test  them  out  fairly. 

It  may  be  that  she  has  taken  work  at  a  university  along  this  line  or  is  a 
member  of  a  seminar,  committee,  or  commission  that  does  work  of  this^ 
kind,  and  has  successfully  conducted  other  experiments. 

She  may  have  shown  her  scientific  attitude  by  previous  work  done  or' 
by  interest  shown  in  this  work  through  actions,  words,  or  deeds. 

Reasons  for  believing  that  the  teacher  meets  these  requirements  should 
be  given  in  the  report. 

c.  Professionally  interested  in  results  of  test. 

4.  She  should  be  a  teacher  who  takes  pride  in  her  profession  and  is 
willing  to  advance  it  wherever  she  can.  She  should  be  progressive,  being 
on  the  watch  for  new  methods  and  for  the  latest  findings  in  Education, 
and  therefore  interested  in  what  can  be  learned  for  the  profession  through 
an  experiment  of  the  kind  in  mind.  She  ought  to  be  interested  in  trying 
to  get  the  body  of  knowledge  in  Education  so  well  organized  that  all  fair- 
thinking  people  will  grant  that  Education  is  a  science. 

Her  professional  interest  could  be  ascertained  by  her  general  attitude  in 
school  work — being  interested  in  obtaining  the  best  possible  results  in  her 
room  and  her  work  and,  therefore,  being  willing  to  try  to  find  the  best 
possible  method  of  doing  it. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  43 

Reasons  for  believing  the  teacher  to  be  of  this  kind,  should  be  given  in 
the  report. 

4.  She  should  be  a  good  disciplinarian,  so  that  the  most  favorable 
conditions  for  attention  will  prevail  in  her  room.  She  should  be  a  teacher 
with  whom  the  pupils  co-operate  and  one  who  does  not  antagonize  them. 
She  should  not  be  of  the  type  that  has  the  pupils  so  frightened  that  they 
lose  their  thinking  powers  and  become  nervous  and  upset  while  being  test- 
ed. A  kindly-disposed,  helpful  teacher,  whom  the  pupils  love  and  not 
fear,  and  with  whom  they  are  intimate,  would  be  the  best.  Thus  she  can 
get  the  fullest  co-operation  of  the  children. 

5.  She  must  be  a  teacher  v.ho  has  a  sufficient  reputation  among  the 
students  for  knowing  what  she  is  doing,  so  that,  if  the  experiment  requires 
their  working  in  the  dark  for  a  time,  their  confidence  in  her  saying  that 
everything  will  come  out  all  right,  will  keep  them  diligently  at  work  on  it. 

d.     Any  other  reasons. 

6.  wShe  may  be  selected  because  the  group  has  been  chosen  by  any  of 
the  reasons  under  ll-i,  p.  31,  and  she  is  the  regular  teacher  who  must  take 
charge  of  the  group. 

7.  She  must  have  sufficient  resourcefulness  to  be  able  to  handle  two 
or  more  sections,  each  using  a  different  method. 

8.  She  should  be  a  keen  observer  and  be  able  to  detect  any  varying  con- 
ditions that  might  have  weight  in  the  test,  and  be  able  to  size  them  up  at 
the  time.  She  should  have  foresight  enough  to  recognize  any  unlooked- 
for  re-actions  or  turns  of  events  which  might  ]jrove  important  when  con- 
sidering the  results.  These  incidents  should  be  written  out  in  full  detail 
at  the  time  and  the  memorandinii  handed  to  the  experimenter. 

9.  Sometimes  an  experiment  w  ill  not  permit  a  strange  person  coming 
in  and  taking  charge  of  the  class.  If  a  class  is  accustomed  to  a  certain 
teacher,  it  dees  not  always  readily  adjust  itself  to  the  ways,  mannerisms, 
voice,  and  requirements  of  a  new  person.  Of  course,  this  would  have 
considerable  effect  on  some  experiments,  and  for  that  reason  the  regular 
teacher  is  sometimes  needed. 

10.  It  may  be  necessary  to  choose  a  certain  teacher  l)ecause  no  other 
is  available.  When  we  must  resort  to  anything  of  this  kind,  it  should  al- 
ways be  stated  when  giving  out  results. 

Reasons  for  believing  the  teacher  to  fulfill  the  requirements  should  be 
given  in  the  report. 

Of  course,  in  much  of  the  foregoing,  ideal  requirements  have  been 
given.     It  will  not   always  be  possible  to  obtain  just  the  type  of  teacher 


44  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

wanted.  The  proper  type  of  pupils  will  often  be  available  but  no  teacher 
of  the  kind  required.  It  may  happen  that  the  teacher  will  not  affect  the 
pupils  as  would  be  expected,  and  that  valid  results  will  be  obtained  never- 
theless. But  it  may  also  happen  that  she  proves  to  be  a  considerably  dis- 
turbing element  and  consequently  throws  results  far  off.  If  information 
concerning  her  is  at  hand,  an  allowance  can  be  made  accordingly  when 
considering  the  results. 

III.     CHOICE  OF  CONDUCTOR  OF  EXPERIMENT.     (Choice  of 

Conductor) 

By  "conductor  of  the  experiment"  is  meant  the  person  who  is  actually 
doing  the  work  of  carrying  on  the  experiment  with  the  pupils.  For  this 
purpose  any  one  or  more  of  the  following  persons  could  be  used :  the  in- 
vestigator or  experimenter,  one  of  the  teachers,  the  school  principal,  the 
school  superintendent,  or  anyone  else  who  has  the  necessary  qualifications. 

In  planning  an  experiment,  each  of  these  should  be  considered  as  a  pos- 
sibility, and  the  reasons  for  and  against  should  be  jotted  down  so  they  can 
be  incorporated  in  the  final  report,  so  that,  if  a  question  arises  on  the  mat- 
ter of  choice  of  conductor,  the  reasons  for  making  the  choice  outlined  will 
be  available. 

One  thing  that  must  he  borne  in  mind  is  that  when  these  terms  are 
used,  the  person  himself  is  not  thought  of,  but  the  position  with  respect 
to  the  experiment  that  the  person  holds.  For  instance,  the  experimenter 
may  also  be  the  teacher  of  the  class,  or  the  principal  may  be  the  experi- 
menter, or  the  superintendent  may  be  the  experimenter,  etc.  What 
is  said  about  the  teacher  in  charge  of  the  experiment  applies  to  the  person 
acting  in  that  capacity,  whether  it  be  the  investigator,  principal,  superin- 
tendent, or  anyone  else.  When  we  speak  of  the  principal,  we  mean  the 
person  as  such,  and  in  that  capacity  only. 

I.  A  consideration  of  each  of  the  following  agents  or  any  combi- 
nation of  them  collaborating  as  best  adapted  to  the  pur- 
pose of  the  experiment  and  mo.st  likely  to  secure  valid  re- 
sults. 

a.     The  Investigator — why  or  why  not  ? 

The  investigator  or  experimenter  may  be  chosen  because  he  is  or  he 
is  not  the  teacher  of  the  class,  for  the  same  reasons  as  given  under 
II-3,  p.  41,  for  Teacher  in  Charge. 

In  this  thesis  the  words  "investigator"  and  "experimenter"  will  be  used 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  45 

synonymously.  Generally  speaking,  the  investigator  is  not  the  best  per- 
son to  conduct  the  experiment.  The  regular  teacher  answers  the  pur- 
pose better,  as  stated  under  the  next  heading.  There  are,  however,  some 
experiments  so  complicated,  or  reciuiring  so  much  technical  knowledge 
with  which  the  investigator  alone  is  familiar,  that  it  becomes  necessary 
for  him  to  conduct  the  experiment.  If  this  happens  to  be  the  case,  full 
details  of  the  situation  should  be  given  in  the  report.  Of  course,  if  the 
experimenter  happens  to  be  the  teacher  of  the  class  on  whom  the  experi- 
ment is  to  be  tried,  that  alters  the  situation. 

b.  Teacher  in  charge  of  the  grade  or  group — why  or  why  not? 

The  teacher  in  charge  of  the  grade  or  group  may  be  chosen  for  any  of 
the  reasons  given  under  II-3,  p.  41. 

Generally  speaking,  the  teacher  in  charge  of  the  class  is  the  most  suit- 
able person  for  conducting  the  expermient.  She  should  be  chosen  in  cer- 
tain cases  because  the  students  are  familiar  with  her  and  therefore  there 
will  be  no  disturbing  element  as  there  woidd  be  by  bringing  into  the  group 
a  strange  person  to  conduct  the  experiment. 

In  the  case  of  an  experiment  that  starts  with  the  beginning  of  a  year 
or  term,  before  the  pupils  have  become  acquainted  with  the  teacher,  it  does 
not  matter  so  much,  and  someone  else  could  conduct  it  just  as  well,  but 
many  experiments  involve  teaching  or  drilling  somewhere  in  the  middle 
or  at  the  end  of  the  term  and  this  can  only  be  done  well  by  the  teacher  who 
had  the  class  right  along,  or  at  some  previous  time.  To  bring  in  another 
person  would  mean  that  some  time  would  be  lost  by  the  pupils  in  becom- 
ing familiar  with  the  person  and  in  becoming  accustomed  to  her  ways — 
method,  discipline,  voice,  requirements,  manners,  standards,  etc. 

Someone  else  could  also  conduct  an  experiment  where  there  is  no  teach- 
ing to  be  done — where  it  is  merely  a  matter  of  finding  the  present  status, 
of  affairs,  as,  for  instance,  ascertaining  the  present  speed  of  pupils  in 
typewriting;  but  even  then,  the  mere  presence  of  a  stranger  in  the  room 
and  the  consciousness  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  that  a  stranger  is  timing 
them  instead  of  their  regular  teacher,  may  prove  a  disturbing  element  and 
make  considerable  difference  with  certain  types  of  "nervous"  pupils,  and 
if  there  were  any  of  that  type  in  the  class,  it  would  not  be  well  to  let  the 
experimenter  do  even  this  simple  act,  when  he  is  not  the  regular  teacher. 

c.  The  principal  in  charge  of  a  building — why  or  why  not? 

The  traditional  principal  is  not  a  good  person  to  conduct  the  experi- 
ment, because  the  pupils  fear  him  and  that  introduces  an  unnatural  ele- 


46  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

ment  into  the  matter,  and  we  can  hardly  expect  the  best  resul's.  Usually 
the  principal  is  not  in  the  good  graces  of  the  students  and  will  not  be 
able  to  get  their  co-operation.  If  he  is  not  of  the  traditional  type,  or  if  he 
is  the  regular  teacher  of  the  class,  that  alters  the  case. 

The  same  reasons  given  under  II-3.  p.  41,  would  apply  here  also. 

d.  The  superintendent  in  charge  of  a  system — why  or  why  not  ? 

The  traditional  superintendent  is  feared  possibly  even  more  than  the 
principal,  and  it  would  not  be  wise,  under  these  circumstances,  to  have 
him  conduct  the  experiment,  if  that  factor  is  likely  to  enter  into  the  re- 
sults. If  he  can  go  into  the  class  room,  however,  without  causing  any 
changed  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  students,  it  would  be  a  different 
matter. 

The  reasons  given  under  II-3,  p.  41,  would  also  apply. 

e.  Anyone  else. 

The  reasons  given  for  experimenter,  teacher,  principal,  and  superinten- 
dent would  apply  to  anyone  else  in  charge  of  the  experiment. 

2.     Agent*  (or  Agents)  Selected  as  Determined  by:   (Agent  Selected). 

a.  Ideal  desirability. 

Of  course,  in  many  experiments,  it  is  desirable  to  have  ideal  condi- 
tions in  every  respect,  and  this  would  include  choosing  the  ideal  person 
to  conduct  the  experiment. 

b.  Expediency. 

But  this  is  often  impossible  and  then  it  becomes  necessary  to  take  the 
next  best,  that  is,  the  expedient,  as  it  is  worded  in  the  outline ;  not  that 
thereby  just  as  good  results  are  obtained  as  would  be  the  case  if  ideal  con- 
ditions prevailed,  but  simply  that  it  is  thought  better  to  deal  with  what  is 
available  and  find  out  what  those  conditions  will  reveal,  than  not  to  try  at 
all.  Trying  out  the  experiment  under  conditions  that  even  fall  short  of 
the  ideal  will  shed  some  light  on  the  problem  at  least,  which  will  no  doubt 
be  helpful  and  may  point  the  way  out  of  some  difficulty.  Of  course,  before 
an  elaborate  experiment  is  tried  on  a  large  scale,  it  is  well  to  consider 
whether  the  conditions  obtainable  approach  the  ideal  sufficiently  to  war- 


*By  "agent"  is  meant  the  conductor  of  the  experiment. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION 


47 


rant  the  expenditure  of  so  much  money.  Meanwhile,  efforts  would  better 
be  confined  to  experiments  on  a  small  scale,  with  the  object  of  learning  as 
much  as  possible  about  them  before  investing  in  them  a  very  large  sum  of 
money,  time,  and  effort. 

Whenever  it  is  not  possible  to  obtain  just  what  is  wanted,  the  grounds 
upon  which  the  choice  was  made  should  be  stated. 

c.     Necessity. 

When  ideal  conditions  are  unobtainable  and  no  choice  in  the  matter  is 
given,  it  sometimes  becomes  necessary  to  take  what  circumstances  thrust 
upon  one.  This  applies  in  general,  as  well  as  to  the  matter  of  choosing  the 
agent  for  conducting  the  experiment.  On  the  whole,  it  is  better  to  con- 
duct the  experiment  even  under  such  conditions  (though  not  for  publica- 
tion), for  some  illuminating  side-lights,  which  may  be  of  considerable 
help  in  various  ways,  may  be  brought  forth. 

The  conditions  which  forced  such  a  course  should  always  be  stated. 

IV.  DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  PROCEDURE  FOR  EXPERIMENT. 

(Development  of  Procedure) 


I.     Content — should  include  a  fi;ll  consideration  of: 
General  plan  in  brief. 

In  some  experiments  the  development  of  the  procedure  will  be  better 
understood  by  the  reader,  if  the  genral  plan  is  briefly  given  at  this  point. 
This  is  especially  the  case  when  the  method  is  very  complicated.  There- 
fore it  has  been  thought  well  to  include  it  in  some  of  the  experiments  cov- 
ered by  this  thesis. 

a.     Difficulties  encountered  and  plans  for  overcoming  them.     (Dif- 
ficulties). 

(i).     Tests. 

Some  definitions  are  necessary  at  this  point. 

FINAL  TEST.  By  this  term  we  shall  mean  a  test  which  is  given  to  the 
pupils  at  the  end  of  the  time  allotted  for  an  experiment,  the  results  of 
w^hich  test  will  be  used  in  determining  the  progress  made  by  each  group 
during  the  experiment.  Each  experiment  will  have  a  final  test  of  some 
kind. 

EQUALIZATION  TEST.    By  this  term  we  shall  mean  a  test  given  be- 


4§  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

fore  the  experiment  begins,  given  for  the  purpose  of  equahzing  the  sec- 
tions or  groups  of  a  class  so  that  one  group  will  not  be  handicapped  in  the 
experiment  because  of  not  having  the  same  chance  at  the  start.  For  in- 
stance, in  a  typewriting  experiment  which  involved  speed  work,  we  would 
not  want  one  section  to  have  a  higher  speed  than  the  other  at  the  start. 
One  section  would  have  an  advantage  over  the  other.  The  test  we  would 
give  to  the  students  to  equalize  the  speed  of  the  sections  would  be  an 
equalization  test. 

Sometimes  one  test  will  answer  the  purposes  of  the  equalization  test  and 
the  preliminary  test.     This  is  the  case  in  some  typewriting  experiments. 

PRELIMINARY  TEST.  By  this  term  we  shall  mean  the  test  given  at 
the  beginning  of  an  experiment  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  data  which 
will  be  compared  with  those  of  the  final  test.  The  difference  between  the 
results  of  the  two  tests  will  show  the  gain  that  has  been  made  during  the 
time  of  the  experiment. 

PRE-PRELIMINARY  TEST.  By  this  term  we  shall  mean  any  tests 
which  are  not  a  part  of  the  experiment  itself,  but  which  are  given  for  the 
purpose  of  clearing  up  any  situation  in  connection  with  a  contemplated  ex- 
periment. 

It  seems  necessary  in  our  terms  to  distinguish  between  such  a  test  and 
the  one  described  under  the  term  "Preliminary  Test."  Dr.  Suhrie  does 
not  use  the  term  "pre-preliminar}"  but  uses  "preliminary"  in  the  sense 
here  used  for  "])re-iireliminary."  A  word  had  to  be  found  for  another 
class  of  tests  and  in  the  Seminar  the  word  "i)re-preliminar)  "  was  used, 
although  half  in  jest.  It  may  not  be  elegant  but  inasmuch  as  it  clearly  ex- 
presses the  idea  of  tests  taken  even  before  the  preliminary  test  can  be 
taken,  and  inasmuch  as  a  number  of  students  in  educational  research  are 
familiar  with  the  term,  its  use  is  felt  justified. 

A  consideration  of  the  tests  will  now  l)e  undertaken. 

PRE-PRELIMINARY  TESTS  should  be  used  in  every  experiment 
where  we  are  not  absolutely  sure  of  our  grounds.  They  should  be  used 
to  determine  whether  or  not  the  idea  in  mind  is  practicable.  There  are 
so  many  factors  entering  into  an  educational  experiment  that  no  one  can 
be  certain  that  a  plan  he  has  in  nnncl  will  actually  work  out  uiuil  it  has 
been  tried.      Pre-preliminary  tests  are  to  be  used  in  determining  this. 

Even  after  an  experimenter  has  a  workable  procedure  he  should  try 
out  the  whole  experiment  in  a  small  way  Ijefore  going  to  the  expense  of 
undertaking  one  on  a  large  scale.  Sometimes  the  actual  working  out  of 
an  experiment  in  this  pre-preliminary  way  brings  us  revelations  which  are 
quite  surprising. 

Pre-preliminary  tests  may  be  used  to  ascertain  the  "unknown"  in  con- 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION 


49 


nection  with  any  experiment.  There  are  hkely  to  he  several  factors 
which  escaped  the  exjierimenter,  even  after  careful  thought.  A  pre- 
preliminary  test  may  hring  some  of  them  to  light. 

There  mav  he  a  numher  of  disturbing  factors  connected  with  an  experi- 
ment, that  a  pre-preliminary  test  may  help  to  discover.  A  numher  of  sit- 
uations may  prove  quite  annoying  to  the  students,  which  we  do  not  feel 
would  he  noticeable. 

It  may  he  very  difficult  to  select  subject-matter  for  the  actual  experi- 
ment or  for  the  equalization,  preliminary,  or  final  tests.  The  easiest  way 
out  of  the  difficulty  is  to  prepare  what  is  thought  to  he  a  suitable  test  for 
equalization,  for  the  preliminary,  or  the  final  test,  and  give  it  to  the  stu- 
dents. Likewise  it  is  ])0ssible  to  try  out  on  the  students  in  this  pre-pre- 
liminary way,  the  kind  of  drills  that  are  contemplated  for  the  exj^eriment 
itself. 

The  time  element  may  require  some  testing.  It  may  l)e  difficult  to  tell 
how  long  an  equalization,  a  preliminary,  or  a  final  test  to  give.  A  pre- 
preliminary  test  should  be  given  for  the  j^urpose  of  determining  this.  If 
one  test  is  found  too  long,  another  should  be  tried.  If  that  is  found  too 
short,  a  medium  one  could  be  tried,  etc. 

It  may  be  a  question  of  the  length  of  the  instruction  period,  or  drill 
period.  The  experimenter  should  decide  upon  a  period  he  thinks  proper 
and  then  try  it  out.  making  it  longer  or  shorter,  as  may  be  necessary.  In 
the  case  of  not  knowing  the  length  of  time  to  devote  to  an  experiment,  it 
will  simplv  mean  making  several  pre-preliminary  experiments  until  that 
element  is  properly  adjusted. 

It  may  not  be  known  whether  the  work  can  be  done  properly  in  the 
room  assigned  for  it.  The  only  way  to  be  absolutely  certain  is  to  try 
it  out  l)y  giving  a  pre-preliminary  test  in  that  room. 

Auv  other  questions  that  arise  in  connection  with  a  contemplated  ex- 
periment should  be  tried  out  with  pre-preliminary  tests,  given  under  the 
same  conditions  as  will  obtain  in  the  experiment  itself.  For  example,  we 
may  wish  to  kncnv  whether  any  students  would  be  disturbed  by  a  person 
walking  around  the  room  during  a  typewriting  test :  or  whether  there  is 
much  difference  in  the  jjcrsonal  co-efficients  of  a  class.  We  may  want 
to  know  how  much  time  it  takes  to  do  a  certain  thing.  A  pre-prelim- 
inary test  would  help  to  decide  these  questions. 

EQUALIZATION  TI<:ST.  The  need  for  eciualization  has  already 
been  mentioned  on  p.  t,t,  fi". 

To  devise  the  proper  equalization  test  may  give  us  more  trouble  than 
anything  else  in  the  experiment.  It  can  readily  be  seen  that  if  the  two 
sections  of  a  class  are  not  equalized  in  some  way.  the  results  cannot  be 


50  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

counted  valid  because  some  of  the  students  may  have  had  a  considerable 
handicap  in  any  number  of  respects.  For  instance,  in  experimenting  with 
a  class  in  Rapid  Addition,  where  two  parallel  sections  are  needed,  it 
would  be  decidedly  unfair  to  put  all  the  rapid  adders  and  the  accurate 
adders  into  one  section  and  the  others  into  another  section.  The  only 
way  we  can  be  sure  we  are  not  doing  this  is  to  give  an  equalization  test. 

It  is  going  to  require  a  number  of  years  before  we  can  find  satisfactory 
equalization  tests  for  some  subjects.  It  is  not  merely  a  question  of  care- 
fully thinking  out  a  test,  but  the  test  itself  must  be  tried  out  on  a  large 
scale,  and  the  results  must  show  that  it  really  does  what  it  was  intended 
to  do.  Then  also,  the  results  of  the  test  must  be  verified,  which  often 
takes  a  considerable  time.  For  example,  to  obtain  a  test  of  the  typewrit- 
ing ability  of  students  about  to  take  up  the  work,  which  test  could  be 
used  to  equalize  the  sections  of  a  beginners'  class  on  which  we  wish  to 
experiment,  it  would  be  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  decide  what  factors 
we  believe  constitute  typewriting  ability,  and  to  give  the  tests  to  a  large 
number  of  students.  Then  we  would  have  to  wait  a  year  or  so,  to  see 
whether  the  progress  made  by  those  students  is  in  accordance  with  the 
prediction  of  the  test.  At  the  end  of  another  year  or  so,  the  comparison 
should  again  be  made  for  the  same  purpose.  If  we  find  uniform  agree- 
ment, w^e  can  feel  that  we  have  found  a  test  such  as  we  are  seeking. 

Of  course,  the  question  is  raised  as  to  what  we  shall  do  in  the  mean- 
while w^ith  typewriting  experiments  that  require  this  test.  We  may  pro- 
ceed with  them  as  best  we  can,  for  three  reasons : 

1.  The  dififerences  in  typewriting  ability  may  not  be  so  great  as 

we  think,  and  this  factor  may  be  a  very  minor  one  in  the  ex- 
periment, which  the  results  are  likely  to  show. 

2.  If    large   numbers    are    involved,    these    individual    dififerences 

would  be  absorbed. 

3.  Testing  out  the  rest  of  the  procedure  may  be  a  justification. 

The  correctness  of  this  portion  will  be  established  or  disproved. 

It  is  not  a  very  satisfactory  method  to  equalize  sections  on  the  basis  of 
the  marks  or  grades  which  the  students  have  made,  represented  by  the 
judgment  marks  of  the  teachers,  although  if  the  marks  for  the  entire 
group  are  given  by  the  same  teacher  or  teachers  and  cover  a  considerable 
period  of  time,  they  are  less  apt  to  be  worthless  for  our  purpose,  than  if 
they  were  given  by  dift'erent  teachers  or  for  only  a  short  length  of  time. 

PRELlillNARY  TEST.  As  a  rule  we  shall  need  two  sets  of  data, 
which  will  be  made  the  basis  of  calculating  the  results  of  the  experiment. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  51 

We  shall  want  one  set  at  the  beginning  and  one  set  at  the  completion  of 
the  experiment.  These  will  be  compared  and  will  show  the  progress  made 
during  the  experiment.  The  data  will  usually  be  obtained  by  giving  some 
kind  of  a  test.  The  one  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  we  shall  call 
the  "Preliminary  Test,"  and  the  one  at  the  end  we  shall  call  the  "Final 
Test." 

Frequently  the  equalization  test  can  also  be  used  as  a  preliminary  test. 

FINAL  TESTS.     Note  what  has  been  said  under  "Preliminary  Test." 

(2)  Preliminary  conferences  with  school  officials  and  teachers. 

An  experimenter  may  have  considerable  difficult)-  in  obtaining  satis- 
factory conferences  with  school  officials  and  teachers,  preliminary  to  the 
experiment. 

Of  course,  there  are  some  experiments  where  the  procedure  is  so  sim- 
ple that  it  could  be  written  out  and  sent  to  the  teachers,  but  there  are  oth- 
ers so  complicated  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  instruct  the  teacher  in 
person.  If  the  school  officials  and  the  teachers  will  not  co-operate  to  the 
extent  of  having  the  necessary  conferences  with  the  experimenter,  the 
project  might  just  as  well  be  abandoned  in  that  school,  because,  without 
the  necessary  co-operation,  the  results  obtained  could  not  be  counted  as 
valid. 

(3)  Other  difficulties. 

There  may  be  a  number  of  other  difficulties,  which  may  be  encountered, 
viz. : 

SCORING 

Let  us  grant  that  we  have  found  the  proper  tests.  Our  real  troubles 
have  not  vanished.  How  shall  the  papers  be  marked  ?  Shall  we  con- 
sider answers  as  being  either  right  or  wrong,  or  shall  we  give  credit 
for  fractional  parts  of  the  answers  which  are  correct?  One  way  out  of 
this  difficulty  is  to  bear  the  fact  in  mind,  when  making  up  the  questions^ 
and  arrange  them  so  that  the  answers  will  be  either  right  or  wrong. 
Give  no  place  for  middle  ground. 

In  bookkeeping,  let  us  say,  we  have  given  the  student  some  transactions, 
for  w  hich  entries  arc  to  be  made  ;  he  is  also  to  post  and  take  a  trial  bal- 
ance. Are  we  going  to  count  the  whole  matter  wrong  because  he  cannot 
get  his  trial  l)alance  ?  He  may  have  everything  correct  but  the  addition  of 
one  small  column,  whicli  throws  out  his  trial  balance.     Are  we  going  to 


52  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

count  it  entirely  wrong  or  give  him  some  credit?  If  some  credit  is  given, 
then  how  much?  Suppose  in  a  journal  entry  he  has  the  debit  correct  and 
the  credit  wrong,  shall  we  count  the  whole  transaction  wrong,  or  say  it  is 
half  correct  ?  Suppose  he  has  the  debit  correct  and  also  the  credit,  but  he 
has  put  down  the  wrong  figure,  say,  for  the  debit.  Shall  we  count  it  all 
wrong,  half  wrong,  one  quarter  wrong,  or  what? 

In  typewriting,  for  instance,  before  1918  only  5  points  were  deducted 
for  an  error,  while  the  next  year  the  penalty  was  increased  to  10  points 
for  each  error.    Which  should  we  use  ? 

Where  questions  require  answers  that  run  into  any  number  of  w-ords, 
or  where  the  answer  involves  several  ideas,  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to 
know  how  to  mark  the  answer.  Shall  we  give  the  student  credit  for 
knowing  the  answer,  even  if  he  does  not  state  it  clearly,  when  we  know  it 
is  clear  in  his  mind,  possibly  from  a  conversation  with  him  right  before 
class?  We  are  trying  to  find  what  is  in  his  mind,  and,  if  we  really  know, 
that  is  the  data  we  should  use,  and  not  the  data  that  is  on  paper  and  incor- 
rectly placed  there.  Placing  things  on  paper  is  simply  a  means  that  we 
have  adopted  to  ascertain  what  is  in  the  mind.  The  method  we  are  using 
may  be  wrong.  We  are  seeking  what  the  student  knows.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  we  follow  a  certain  plan  with  one  pupil,  it  would  be  unfair  to 
others,  who  may  be  in  the  same  position. 

To  what  extent  w'ill  English  enter  into  the  question?  Are  we  going  to 
mark  for  neatness  of  papers,  or  only  for  the  subject-matter?  In  book- 
keeping, are  w^e  going  to  ])enalize  the  bookkeeping  mark  for  the  poor  pen- 
manship, which  is  responsible  for  the  untidy  appearance  of  the  books? 
Are  we  going  to  deduct  from  his  mark,  supposed  to  show  his  bookkeeping 
knowledge,  any  lack  of  preparation  in  fundamentals,  as  in  addition,  etc.? 
To  be  sure  these  are  necessary  to  make  a  good  bookkeeper,  but  possibly 
it  is  his  understanding  of  bookkeeping  that  we  are  trying  to  measure, 
and  that  would  primarily  mean  the  system  of  debits  and  credits,  and  not 
ability  in  addition  or  subtraction. 

Possibly  the  best  way  out  of  difficult  marking  is  to  analyze  the  situation 
and  see  what  elements  should  be  included  in  the  answer  to  the  question. 
For  instance,  take  the  question :  "Tell  what  the  Negotiable  Instruments 
Law  is."  In  answer  to  this  question,  the  student  should  include  the  fol- 
lowing ideas :  It  is  a  law,  drawn  up  in  the  U.  S.  A.,  by  the  American  Bar 
Association,  within  the  last  few  decades,  with  the  idea  of  making  it  pos- 
sible for  all  our  states  to  have  uniform  laws  regarding  negotiable  instru- 
ments. There  are  five  ideas.  If  the  students  has  given  all  of  the  five,  we 
shall  count  his  answer  correct.  If  any  one  is  missing,  we  shall  deduct  one 
f^fth. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION 


53 


Our  scheme  is  spoiled,  however,  when  the  student  has  correctly  an- 
swered all  of  the  question  and  then  adds  something  that  is  not  right.  Are 
we  going  to  give  him  full  value  for  this  question?  If  not,  how  much  are 
we  going  to  deduct  ? 

To  be  specific,  take  the  commercial  law  question  just  stated;  suppose 
some  student  gives  much  more  information  than  that  above  (and  all  of  it 
is  correct ).  are  we  going  to  give  him  the  same  mark  as  the  person  who  has 
given  only  the  five  ideas  enumerated  ?  It  does  not  seeem  fair,  and  yet, 
we  made  it  plain  to  the  class  that  we  require  only  the  chief  ideas,  and 
others,  proceeding  on  this  assumption  have  given  us  the  five.  Should  they 
get  any  less  than  a  correct  mark  for  the  question  ? 

Another  question  that  arises  is  this :  By  whom  are  the  papers  to  be 
marked?  May  the  pupils  do  it  or  must  the  teacher  or  some  clerical  force 
do  it?  In  some  things,  where  there  is  little  possibility  of  cheating,  the  pu- 
pils may  be  trusted  to  do  it,  but  in  other  cases  this  cannot  be  done. 

The  book.  "Commercial  Tests  and  How  to  Give  Them."*  suggests  hav- 
ing the  paper  marked  by  the  person  who  has  written  it.  after  it  has  been 
checked  by  another  pupil  whose  name  is  affixed,  and  re-checked  by  still 
another  pupil  whose  name  is  also  affixed.  This  gives  a  very  close  check 
on  the  marking,  and  saves  a  great  deal  of  work  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

PROCEDURE  WITH  KNOWLEDGE  OR  WITHOUT 


A  question  that  is  sometimes  hard  to  decide  is  this  :  Shcnild  the  pupils 
do  the  experiment  with  a  full  knowledge  of  the  reasons  for  it.  elc.  or 
should  they  not  ?  Should  they  even  know  that  an  experiment  is  going 
on — that  it  is  not  regular  class  work  that  is  being  done  i^ 

The  arguments  are  : 

That  we  can  hardly  expect  the  student  to  give  us  what  we  want,  if  he 
does  not  know  fully  what  is  expected.  For  example,  if  we  tell  the  pujiils 
that  a  test  is  being  made,  the  results  of  whicli  are  going  to  the  university, 
or  are  to  be  compared  with  other  schools  of  the  state  or  country,  we  imme- 
diately prompt  some  students  to  do  their  best.  l)ui  others  are  made  so 
nervous  that  they  cannot  do  well.  If  the  pupils  do  not  know  just  what 
we  want,  the  most  resourceful  one  might,  out  of  his  originality,  do  just 
we  want,  had  he  known  it.  If  a  student  does  not  know  that  he  is  to  hurry, 
we  want,  if  he  knows  it.  If  a  student  does  not  know  that  he  is  to  hurry, 
he  will  take  his  time.  He  might  be  able  to  do  more  than  he  does,  and 
would  do  it,  if  he  knows  speed  is  desired.  No  boy  is  on  his  toes  all  the 
time  and  we  may  be  marking  him  unfairly. 


*By  Sherwiii  Cody,  pulilished  by  World  Book  Co.,  "S'onkcrs,  X.  Y. 


54  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

Some  students  are  prompted  to  be  "smart"  as  soon  as  they  know  some- 
thing of  this  nature  is  going  on.  An  illustration  is  the  tests  of  Bible 
knowledge  given  college  students.  They  knew  someone  was  trying  to 
ascertain  how  stupid  they  were  on  matters  of  this  kind,  and  they  did  not 
want  to  disappoint  him. 

If  the  students  know  it  is  an  experiment,  those  antagonistic  to  such 
things  will  immediately  withhold  their  co-operation. 

If  two  methods  are  being  tried  out  and  one  of  these  methods  is  dis- 
tasteful to  the  students  (irrespective  as  to  whether  or  not  it  produces  the 
better  results),  and  if  they  suspect  that  the  policy  after  the  experiment 
will  be  determined  by  the  results  of  the  experiment,  they  are  likely  to  put 
their  heads  together  and  defeat  the  method  that  is  distasteful  to  them. 

It  is  indeed  difficult  to  know  just  how  much  to  tell  the  students. 

ANTAGONISTIC  ATTITUDE  OF  PUPIL  AND  REFUSAL  TO 

CO-OPERATE 

Trouble  may  be  caused  by  a  considerable  number  of  pupils,  or  even  a 
few,  taking  an  antagonistic  attitude  towards  the  experiment  and  some  of 
them  absolutely  refusing  to  co-operate.  One  case  in  mind  is  that  of  a 
girl  who  did  not  see  any  sense  in  experiments.  She  was  not  getting  along 
any  too  well  with  her  regular  work  and  this  afiforded  her  more  ground  to 
find  fault.  It  would  seem  that  the  only  proper  course,  in  a  case  of  this 
kind,  would  be  to  exclude  her  results  when  figuring  the  results  of  a  small 
group.  If  a  large  group  were  being  averaged,  her  peculiarities  would  be 
lost  in  the  average,  but  they  would  not  be  in  the  average  of  a  small 
grotip.  The  one  reporting  an  experiment  should  not  absolutely  ignore 
her,  but  should  state  the  conditions  and  the  results  obtained  by  her.  If 
later  a  cjuestion  should  arise  about  the  wisdom  of  excluding  her  in  the 
average,  she  may  still  be  included  without  any  trouble,  if  judgment  pro- 


noimces  it  wiser. 


■  INABILITY  OF  PUPILS  TO  DO  WORK 

Another  case  comes  to  mind  which  should  not  be  counted  in  a  small  ex- 
periment when  averaging  results.  This  was  also  in  a  typewriting  experi- 
ment. The  girl  in  question  came  to  school  each  day  in  such  condition  that 
she  was  not  really  able  to  do  the  work  as  it  should  be  done.  She  was  a 
society  butterfly,  being  out  late  to  dances  nearly  every  night  during  the 
week,  coming  to  school  at  the  last  stroke  of  nine  and  being  half  asleep 
when  she  got  there.     It  was  plainly  seen  that  she  could  not  do  efficient 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION 


55 


work  and  for  that  reason  was  not  meeting  the  requirements  of  the  ex- 
periment and  should  not  be  included  when  averaging  the  results. 

In  a  small  group,  an  experimenter  is  often  concerned  for  fear  there  may 
not  be  many  whose  results  may  be  figured  in  the  average,  because  a  num- 
ber of  the  students  have  made  themselves  ineligible  by  reason  of  absence, 
inability  or  indisposition  to  do  the  work. 


Dates  and  days  on  which  instruction, 
given.     (Time). 


Irills  or  tests  are  to  be 


In  considering  the  time  for  an  experiment,  there  are  several ,  things 
which  should  not  be  omitted : 

The  dates  of  the  beginning  and  ending  of  the  experiment  should  be  set 
definitely,  if  the  nature  of  the  experiment  allows  it.  That  involves  the 
length  of  the  period  during  which  the  experiment  is  to  take  place.  We 
must  look  ahead  and  see  that  our  time  calculation  is  not  affected  by  holi- 
days (both  regular  and  special)  and  by  vacations.  If  one  is  not  careful, 
he  finds,  after  having  nearly  completed  an  experiment,  that  a  holiday  or 
vacation  interferes  and  upsets  everything.  This  would  be  very  serious  in 
an  experiment  where  the  time  element  must  be  carefully  considered.  Gen- 
tiles must  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  if  the  group  to  take  the  experiment 
contains  a  considerable  nuiuber  of  children  of  the  Jewish  faith,  the  Jew- 
ish holidays  must  also  be  taken  into  consideration. 

As  far  as  can  be  the  case,  wq  should  also  consider  possible  epidemics  in 
this  connection.  For  instance,  when  the  Spanish  Influenza  was  sweeping 
nearby  districts,  it  would  have  been  unwise  to  have  started  an  experiment, 
because  the  likelihood  was  very  great  that  any  schools  in  question  would 
be  closed,  or  else  there  would  be  so  many  absent  that  the  efifort  of  tlie 
experiment  would  be  practically  useless. 

If  normal  conditions  are  essential,  it  is  unwise  to  begin  an  experiment 
when  war  time  excitement  prevails  as  has  just  been  the  case  in  our  land.  It 
is  too  niucli  of  a  disturbing  element  both  for  the  teacher  and  the  pupil. 

If  it  is  known  that  for  any  reason  many  ])ui)ils  are  likel\-  to  be  absent, 
the  experiment  should  be  postponed  until  another  time.  It  means  that  in 
the  results  under  such  conditions  only  a  small  number  of  students  could 
be  taken  into  the  account.  We  all  know  that  it  is  more  desirable  to  have 
the  largest  possible  number  of  students  eligible  for  the  results.  It  helps 
to  eliminate  the  individual  element  and  gives  us  an  average  from  a  great- 
er number. 

In  considering  the  end  of  the  experiment,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that 
while  we  must  make  the  experiment  long  enough  to  really  sIkjw  results, 
yet  there  are  cases  where  it  would  defeat  its  object,  if  the  time  were  too 


56  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

long.  If  the  same  subject-matter  is  used  and  a  long  period  of  time  is  giv- 
en, both  sections  are  likely  to  master  the  subject-matter  because  of  the 
mere  drill  they  have  had  on  it,  regardless  of  the  method  used. 

Or  if  the  time  is  too  long,  the  students  may  become  disinterested  and  the 
conditions  of  the  experiment  would  not  be  met.  The  time  must  not  be 
long  enough  to  be  tiring,  especially  if  the  method  is  not  very  self-recom- 
mending. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  cannot  be  so  short  that  neither  method  has  had  an 
opportunity  to  work. 

We  must  be  particular  in  choosing  the  day  for  the  final  test.  It  should 
not  come  immediately  after  a  week-end,  holiday,  or  vacation.  In  some  ex- 
periments this  would  be  a  considerable  item.  In  typewriting,  for  instance, 
speed  tests  would  show  better  results  if  given  at  the  end  of  the  week,  than 
immediately  after  a  vacation,  or  even  a  few  days'  rest. 

The  days  of  the  week  on  which  the  experiment  is  to  be  conducted  must 
also  be  determined.  This  will  involve  the  interval  of  repetition.  In  ex- 
periments requiring  every-other-day  meetings  of  the  groups,  we  face  the 
uncompromising  odd  day  in  the  week.  We  could  hardly  keep  perfect  every- 
other-day  intervals,  for  no  one  would  want  to  come  to  school  on  Sundays 
or  Saturdays  when  necessary.  Yet  this  obstacle  is  not  so  important  as  it 
looks  at  first  sight,  because  even  if  we  did  ascertain  what  could  be  done 
under  a  perfect  every-other-day  schedule,  it  would  be  of  very  little  practi- 
cal value  to  us  because  we  do  not  and  could  not  run  our  schools  that  way. 
It  would  be  more  practical  to  ascertain  what  could  be  done  with  Monday- 
Wednesday-Friday  classes.  If  the  interval  is  the  important  factor,  holi- 
days must  be  watched  or  they  will  upset  our  plans. 

Another  vexatious  question  is,  how  are  we  to  decide  what  the  proper 
intervals  are  or  should  be.  Pre-preliminary  tests  might  help  to  answer 
this. 

c.     Time  of  day  when  presentations,  drills  and  tests  are  to  be  given. 
(Periods). 

This  consideration  is  likely  to  give  us  some  trouble  when  trying  to  work 
out  experiments.  In  the  first  place,  we  have  to  decide  what  periods  or 
hours  of  the  day  are  most  suitable  for  the  experiment  under  consideration, 
and,  in  the  second  place,  we  shall  have  a  try  to  have  the  school  schedule 
arranged  to  suit. 

In  determining  the  most  desirable  period  of  the  day  we  must  bear  sev- 
eral things  in  mind,  which  may  affect  the  proposed  experiment.  We  must 
avoid  periods  when  the  students  are  fatigued  because  of  the  work  done  in 
the  periods  immediately  preceding.  It  should  not  be  the  end  of  a  heavy 
session,  either  morning  or  afternoon. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION 


57 


It  should  iioi  be  ininit'cliately  after  any  classes  that  reqtiire  an  undue 
amount  of  concentration,  which  will  leave  its  effect  on  the  minds  of  the 
students  throui;h  fatigue.  A  combination  of  Algebra,  Latin,  and  Frig- 
onometry  classes,  immediately  before  the  experiment  period,  would  be 
unfortunate. 

W'e  must  avoid  periods  following  those  wherein  the  sttidents  have  had 
a  hilarious  time  and  becattse  of  that  fact  cannot  immediately  settle  down 
to  work. 

A\'e  must  consider  what  the  students'  preceding  activities  are.  as  well  as 
his  inactivities.  Sometimes  the  inactivities  are  more  disastrous  to  the 
experiment  than  the  activities. 

The  period  whicli  follows  may  be  a  factor.  The  anticii)ation  of  it  may 
be  a  disturbance. 

We  must  avoid  all  periods  that  follow  any  wherein  the  students  have 
been  made  tmlit.  through  any  cause,  for  the  immediate  application  of 
their  minds  to  the  work  in  hand. 

We  must  avoid  also  the  periods  when  the  teacher  for  any  reason  is  not 
in  shape  to  be  most  efficient. 

in  the  case  of  typewrting,  during  the  winter  months,  the  first  period 
of  a  session  would  not  be  the  most  desirable,  because  for  some  of  the 
late-comers,  the  fmgers  might  still  be  so  cold  that  they  could  not  do 
efficient  work  in  manipulating  them.  If  no  other  period  is  available,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  postpone  the  experiment  tmtil  another  season  of  the 
year. 

If  a  particular  laboratory  is  necessary,  as,  for  instance,  in  typewriting, 
we  must  be  certain  that  the  periods  decided  upon  are  those  when  the  room 
is  at  our  disposal. 

It  will  not  always  be  possible  to  arrange  a  school  schedtile  to  fit  the 
ideal  desiral)ility  of  an  experiment,  and  then  it  would  mean  either  condtict- 
ing  the  experiment  during  the  periods  that  are  available  or  not  conducting 
it  at  all.  It  would  I)e  a  qtiestion  of  choosing  the  lesser  of  the  two  evils. 
Ordinarily  it  would  seem  best  to  try  the  experiment  even  under  the  ad- 
verse conditions,  imless  they  were  extremely  so.  Of  cotirse,  the  restilts 
ought  not  to  be  given  otit  without  clearly  stating  that  the  desired  con- 
ditions did  not  ])rev.'iil  .'uid  that  therefore  the  results  are  not  absolutely 
reliable. 

Our  report  of  the  experiment  should  always  state  what  precedes  the 
period,  for  the  session  at  least.  It  wotdd  do  no  harm  to  give  the  com- 
plete schedule  of  the  students  for  the  whole  day  up  to  that  period. 

d.     Subiect-matter  to  be  tised  as  basis  of  instruction,  drill  or  tests. 
(^Sul)ject-matterj. 


58  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

The  subject-matter  of  the  instruction,  drills,  or  tests,  will  have  to  be  de- 
termined next.  Of  course,  that  can  be  determined  only  after  we  clearly 
know  for  what  we  are  testing  or  experimenting.  If  any  questions  arise 
as  to  practicability,  we  might  save  time  by  using  pre-preliminary  tests  as 
mentioned  on  p.  48  ff. 

We  should  be  very  definite  in  our  report.  We  should  give  all  the  de- 
tails of  the  study,  so  that  any  one  reading  the  outline,  even  if  he  did  not 
know  the  subject  taught,  would  be  able  to  appreciate  the  points  and  con- 
tentions held. 

The  drills  and  tests  should  be  given  in  detail,  as  well  as  an  example,  at 
least,  of  the  lessons  under  each  method. 

We  should  state  the  subject  in  which  the  experiment  is  being  given,  the 
sections  of  the  subject  to  be  covered,  name  of  text  (if  one  is  to  be  used), 
and  pages  or  paragraphs  to  be  covered,  also  name  of  publisher.  This 
will  make  for  definiteness,  and  be  valuable  for  future  reference. 

e.     Details  of  Procedure  proposed  for  experimenter  or  his  assist- 
ants in  conducting  the  experiment.     For  example  : 
(i)      Copies  of  instruction  to  *be  given  to  helpers  with  state- 
ment of  precautions  to  be  observed. 

We  now  come  to  a  consideration  of  all  other  details  of  procedure  that 
have  not  been  covered. 

We  must  work  out  the  instructions  which  are  to  be  given  to  the  helpers, 
and  the  precautions  that  must  be  observed.  These  should  be  handed  to 
the  assistants  in  written  form,  regardless  of  any  personal  conferences.  It 
is  so  easy  to  forget  unless  instructions  are  in  definite,  written  form. 

(2)      Time  limits  fixed  for  periods  of  instruction,  drill  or  test 
— with  precautions  to  be  observed. 

\\'e  should  consider  the  precautions  necessary  so  far  as  observing  the 
time  limits  in  the  drills,  instructions,  and  tests,  is  concerned. 

(3)      Form,  order  and  method  of  giving  directions  to  group 
to  be  tested.     Precautions  to  be  observed. 

Next  we  should  consider  the  directions  to  be  given  to  the  group  to  be 
tested.  \\"e  should  determine  the  method  of  giving  the  directions, 
whether  orally  or  in  writing.  We  must  determine  upon  the  order  in 
which  the  instructions  are  given,  being  sure  that  we  give  first,  the  thing 
we  want  first,  and  last,  the  thing  we  want  last.  There  should  be  a  state- 
ment in  the  instructions  that  the  order  is  not  to  be  changed,  if  that  is  the 
desire. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION 


5'J 


These  instructions  slioiild  include: 

What  to  say  first,  what  to  say  seconch  etc. 

What  It)  say,  what  not  to  say.  We  should  give  the  teacher  the  reasons 
for  this,  so  that  in  case  it  is  necessary  for  her  to  make  any  decisions  at  the 
nionien!,  she  may  l)e  ahle  to  decide  wisely  in  our  absence,  .^he  will  then 
know  the  lines  of  thought  that  the  experimenter   is   following. 

\\  hat  to  do  first,  what  to  do  second,  etc. 

W  hat  to  do  and  what  not  to  do. 

We  shall  have  to  decide  just  what  form  the  direction.s  shall  take.  Shall 
the  teacher  read  the  directions  as  they  are  printed?  Where  we  want 
absolute  uniformity,  that  is  the  best  way  of  obtaining  it.  We  may  decide 
that  the  teacher  may  give  the  sense  of  the  printed  directions  in  her  own 
words. 

The  pupils  must  not  become  excited.  The  experiment  should  be  per- 
fectly normal  and  ordinary,  so  as  not  to  arouse  excitement  of  suspicions. 
The  children  should  be  told  exactly  what  we  re([uire,  so  that  they  will  not 
be  under  wrong  impressions  and  give  us  the  wrong  result. 

Precautions  to  be  observed  in  connection  with  all  these  considerations, 
should  <aho  be  given,  both  those  to  be  told  the  students  and  those  to  be 
observed  by  the  teacher. 

(4)      Record  to  be  made  of  (a)  interruption  to  attention  of  class 
or  of  any  considerable  number  of  students  by  visitors,  mes- 
sengers, storm  or  rain,  accident,  discipline,  etc. 
(a )      Weather  conditions  during  each  successful  period  of  pre- 
sentation, drill  or  test. 

(c)  Temperature  of  laboratory   (class  room). 

(d)  Condition  of  ventilation. 

(e)  Mis.steps  in  carrying  out  instructions  by  slight  or  consid- 
erable variations  in  form  of  a  definitely  planned  procedure,  as, 
for  instance,  the  inversion  of  order  or  the  varying  pronuncia- 
tion of  words. 


We  must  not  overlook  to  mention  in  the  instructions  that  there  arc  a 
number  of  things  which  we  cannot  ordinarily  control,  and  which  are  im- 
portant enough  to  be  disturbing  elements  in  some  cases.  1^he  teacher 
should  have  these  in  nnnd  and  make  a  complete  note  of  them  in  her  re- 
port, stating  definitely  whether  or  not  any  of  the  disturbances  occurred 
and  to  just  what  extent  they  interfered  according  to  her  observation. 

(a)  The  attention  of  the  class  or  of  any  members  of  the  class  may  be 
disturbed  by  visitors,  messengers,  storm,  lightning,  thunder,  rain,  snow, 
hail,  accident,  di.scipline,  noises  of  various  kinds  on  the  street,  street  ped- 
dlers, organ  grinders,  street  musicians,  fire  alarms  or  passing  of  fire  en- 


I 
I 
I 
I 


6o  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

gines,  fire  drills,  parades  in  the  street,  and  numerous  other  things.  Tardy 
students  may  also  cause  disturbance.  Complete  note  of  interruptions  should 
be  made  at  the  time,  so  as  to  get  all  of  the  details  before  they  are  forgotten. 

(b)     Weather  conditions. 

Weather  conditions  should  be  noted  for  each  period,  presentations  and 
drills  as  well  as  tests.  It  may  be  thought  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  keep 
a  record  of  the  weather  conditions  if  an  experiment  extends  over  a  long 
period,  that  is,  several  months,  but  in  the  interest  of  science,  it  should  be 
done. 

A  long  succession  of  gloomy  days  when  one  section  is  reciting  and  a 
long  succession  of  bright  days  for  the  other  section  may  have  considera- 
ble bearing  on  the  results,  ^^^e  all  know  that  we  can  work  better  on  a 
bright,  crisp  day  than  on  a  dull,  close  day.  These  conditions  may  or  may 
not  interfere  with  our  experiment ;  it  would  depend  largely  upon  the  na- 
ture of  the  experiment.  However,  if  there  is  an  unexpected  difference,, 
we  want  to  have  the  exact  data  before  us  concerning  it. 

The  teacher  should  state  whether  the  day  was : 

bright,  dull,  sunny,  part  cloudy,  cloudy, 

rain,  snow,  hail,  showers   (how  long  during  experiment), 

storm  (how  long  and  what  kind — terrific  or  mild,  thunder  or  wind,, 
cloud-burst,  tornado,  etc.) 

humid,  damp,  sultry,  sticky,  close, 

clear,  crisp,  brisk,  invigorating. 

This  information  should  be  stated  for  the  period  during  which  the 
experiment  took  place  and  for  the  preceding  part  of  the  day,  if  any  sudden 
change  occurred,  that  might  have  a  bearing  upon  it. 

Atmospheric  Conditions. 

Atmospheric  conditions  may  upset  our  plans. 

Work  done  in  a  clear,  dry  atmosphere,  it  would  seem,  has  the  advantage 
over  work  done  in  a  humid  atmosphere.  The  conditions  of  the  atmosphere 
should  be  noted,  as  it  might  account  for  differences  in  results  of  experi- 
ments made  at  several  different  places.  Sticky,  humid  days  occur  fre- 
quently in  New  York  City,  and  make  considerable  difference  to  certain 
pieces  of  apparatus.  The  old  Remington  Typewriter,  with  its  wood  key 
bars,  was  very  much  subject  to  weather  conditions.  The  wood  bars  used 
to  swell  on  humid  days,  and  the  machines  would  not  work  as  well  as  on 
bright,  crisp  days.  That  trouble  is  now  eliminated  from  the  new  Reming- 
ton, as  metal  is  used  in  place  of  wood,  but  it  would  have  been  very  unfair 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  6i 

to  compare  a  class  being  tested  with  these  machines  on  a  humid  day  and 
a  class  taking  the  test  under  more  favorable  weather  conditions. 

(c)  Temperature. 

The  temperature  of  the  class  room  or  laboratory  should  be  taken  each 
day  during  the  experiment.  A  hot  summer  day  would  not  be  so  invigo- 
rating as  a  pleasant  fall  day.  Better  work  might  be  looked  for  in  a  room 
where  the  temperature  is  70  F.  than  where  it  is  105  F. 

Of  course,  if  each  section  had  an  equal  number  of  days  of  the  same 
kind,  it  would  seem  logical  to  say  that  there  ought  to  be  no  difiference  in 
the  results  because  of  this  factor.  But  the  days  may  be  so  distributed  that 
the  one  section  has  considerably  more  vm favorable  days  than  the  other. 

Even  if  each  section  averaged  the  same  number  of  favorable  and  unfav- 
orable days,  there  might  be  a  difference  if  for  one  section  the  favorable 
days  occurred  at  the  most  difficult  lessons  and  if  for  the  other  section  the 
imfavorable  days  came  at  that  time.  Not  knowing  those  lessons  thor- 
oughly might  considerably  hamper  the  students  in  the  work  that  follows. 

Some  experiments  may  be  devised  that  must  be  conducted  under  cer- 
tain weather  conditions  and  no  others  would  do  so  well. 

One  may  have  trouble  keeping  the  temperature  of  the  room  at  the 
proper  point.  In  typewriting  one  cannot  accomplish  much  if  the  room  is 
cold  and  the  fingers  cannot  get  warmed  up  enough  to  be  limber.  If  they 
are  cold  and  stiff,  we  do  not  have  absolute  control  over  them  and  they 
cannot  move  fast  and  accurately. 

A\'e  must  not  be  misled  by  thermometers,  however,  especially  in  win- 
ter. Some  thermometers  are  known  to  have  registered  68  while  the  stu- 
dents in  certain  parts  of  the  room  complained  of  the  heat  and  they  had 
grounds  for  their  discomfort.  The  thermostat  thermometer  was  far  from, 
the  hottest  part  of  the  room,  and,  of  course,  the  thermometer  could  not 
be  moved.  Neither  could  windows  be  opened,  for  such  action  would 
disarrange  the  delicate  thermostat  system.  If  such  conditions  exist,  the 
teacher  should  tell  what  the  thermometer  read  but  should  supplement  it 
by  a  statement  as  to  the  actual  condition  of  affairs. 

(d)  Ventilation. 

Condition  of  ventilation  should  also  be  noted.  A  poorly  ventilated  room 
cannot  encourage  the  energy  that  a  well  ventilated  room  does,  and  if  one 
section  is  in  the  room  on  more  days  when  it  cannot  be  properly  ventilated, 
than  the  other  section,  it  would  be  a  disadvantage  which  might  affect  re- 
sults. 


62  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

The  report  should  state  whether  the  ventilation  is  good,  fair,  or  poor, 
and  if  the  room  is  close  and  stuffy,  a  note  should  be  made  accordingly. 

(e)     Missteps. 

Where  we  have  a  definitely  planned  procedure  and  the  instructions  are 
to  follow  it,  the  teacher  should  make  a  complete  note  of  any  missteps  in 
carrying  out  the  instructions  or  any  slight  or  considerable  variation  in  the 
form ;  e.  g.,  the  inversion  of  order,  the  varying  pronunciation  of  words, 
having  to  say  a  thing  more  than  the  number  of  times  called  for,  or  any 
variations  made  necessary  by  the  exigencies  of  anything  that  might  arise. 

2.  Form — A  statement  in  full  detail  and  in  order  of  steps  to  be 
taken  in  the  preparation  and  presentation  of  material  of  test 
and  in  full  conduct  of  experiment.      (Form). 

After  all  has  been  determined,  the  complete  procedure  for  the  experi- 
ment should  be  written  up,  so  as  to  have  it  in  definite  form. 

V.     CONDUCTING   OF   EXPERIMENT.      (Conducting  of    Experi- 
ment) 

'  I.     Under  the  conditions  agreed  upon  with  such  slight  modifica- 

tions only  as  are  made  necessary  by  the  exigencies  of  the  case. 

The  experiment  is  to  be  conducted  under  the  conditions  agreed  upon, 
with  such  slight  modifications  only  as  are  made  necessary  by  the  exigency 
of  the  circumstances.  It  is  very  difficult  to  foresee  all  the  things  that  are 
likely  to  occur  in  an  experiment  and  therefore  it  often  happens  that  while 
the  experiment  is  in  process  and  before  the  experimenter  can  be  consult- 
ed, a  decision  must  be  made  on  the  part  of  the  conductor  which  is  not  in 
the  plan  of  the  experiment.  The  conductor  should  be  careful  not  to 
make  any  considerable  changes  from  the  outline  as  laid  down,  but  slight 
deviations,  which  will  not  seriously  affect  the  validity  of  results,  may  be 
made.  Of  course,  a  complete  memorandum  of  the  variation  should  be 
made  at  the  time,  so  that  all  the  information  will  be  at  hand  in  considering 
the  results,  and  so  that,  if  discrepancies  occur  between  experiments  con- 
ducted at  various  places,  it  can  be  determined  whether  the  judgment,  made 
at  the  time  as  to  the  seriousness  of  the  interference,  was  wise  or  not. 

2.  Full,  detailed  and  explicit  record  of  variations  from  procedure 
made  at  the  time.  Also  observations  which  might  introduce 
varying  factors. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  63 

Any  teacher  conducting  an  experiment  should  be  keenly  observant  for 
any  occurrences  which  might  have  a  bearing  on  the  results.  She  should 
make  a  detailed  and  "explicit  record  of  them  at  the  time,  because  some  of 
the  details  may  be  forgotten  later.  This  also  applies  to  any  variations, 
however  slight,  from  the  approved  plans.  Nothing  should  be  hidden, 
even  if  it  is  the  teacher's  own  fault,  or  the  fault  of  the  experimenter. 
We  cannot  arrive  at  proper  conclusions  unless  we  know  the  exact  state 
of  affairs. 

VI.  REVIEW  OF  EXPERIMENT  AND  PRELIMINARY  REPORT. 

(Preliminary  Report) 

1.  A   full  statement  by  experimenter  and   assistants — in  person 

when  possible — to  Seminar  of  all  information,  whether  record- 
ed or  not,  which  has  bearing,  direct  or  remote,  upon  interpre- 
tation of  results  and  validity  of  same. 

Dr.  Suhrie  wrote  up  this  outline  for  use  in  the  seminar.  He,  no  doubt, 
felt  that  the  matter  of  experimentation  in  educational  method  is  in  such 
an  undeveloped  stage  that  group  judgment  would  be  far  better  on  these 
questions  than  individual  judgment,  and  that  we  would  get  further  with 
the  science  in  that  way. 

Hence  this  outline  requires  presenting  to  the  seminar  in  person,  when 
possible,  by  the  experimenter  and  assistants,  a  full  statement  of  the 
experiment,  thus  having  the  matter  gone  over  thoroughly  and  having  no 
hasty  conclusions  drawn  and  published  as  valid.  In  the  seminar  the  full- 
est possible  information  should  be  stated,  both  that  which  is  recorded  and 
that  which  is  not,  for  only  in  this  way,  with  all  the  data  at  hand,  can  an 
intelligent  conclusion  be  reached. 

2.  Tentative  outline  of  scheme  for  tabulation  of  data  with  sugges- 

tions as  to  possible  or  significant  correlations  to  be  found,  dia- 
grams to  be  made  and  points  to  be  emphasized  in  writing  up. 

The  experimenter  should  also  present  to  the  seminar  a  tentative  outline 
of  the  scheme  for  tabulation  of  the  data,  with  suggestions  as  to  the  pos- 
sible or  significant  correlations  to  be  found,  diagrams  to  be  made  and 
points  to  be  emphasized  in  the  formal  report. 

Some  of  the  experiments  which  will  be  outlined  in  this  thesis  have  been 
talked  over  in  the  seminar  but  the  others  have  not.  It  were  better  if  all 
could  be. 


64  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

VII.     FORMAL  REPORT  AND  PUBLICATION.     (Formal  Report) 

This  section  is  also  written  with  the  idea  in  mind  that  the  seminar  will 
pass  on  all  experiments  and  this  will  have  to  be  remembered  when  reading 
the  following  experiments. 

I.     Preparation  of  report  l)y  individual  or  committee. 

After  the  preliminary  report  has  been  presented  to  the  seminar  and  the 
matter  has  been  talked  over,  the  formal  report  should  then  be  prepared, 
either  by  an  individual  or  a  committee.  If  only  one  person  was  involved 
in  the  experiment,  he  might  just  as  well  write  it  up,  but  if  the  report  is  a 
long  affair,  each  one  might  write  up  the  particular  section  in  which  he  was 
involved.  Or,  if  any  particular  one  has  the  faculty  of  putting  things 
clearly,  etc.,  the  writing  of  ceriain  sections  that  particularly  call  for  that 
ability  could  be  given  to  that  person. 

2.     Principles   governing    form    of    report    as    determined    by   the 
uses  to  which  it  is  to  be  put. 

The  form  of  report  should  be  governed  by  the  use  to  which  it  is  to  be 
put.  It  would  be  advisable  to  have  three  reports — an  abstract,  a  sum- 
mary, and  a  detailed  report. 

There  shcuild  be  a  brief  abstract  for  the  use  of  teachers  in  improving 
their  method. 

The  summary  should  be  more  complete  and  should  be  written  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  reader.  If  it  is  to  go  to  some  scientific  magazine,  then 
it  should  bring  out  the  scientific  points  in  detail,  etc. 

The  detailed  report  should  be  very  complete  and  concise,  and  should 
be  written  with  the  idea  of  serving  scientific  investigators  in  the  field  of 
experimental  research  in  method.  Every  detail  should  be  plainly  given, 
so  that  in  correlating  the  work  in  the  future  with  other  similar  work,  dif- 
ficulties in  the  one  may  throw  light  upon  the  other  because  all  the  details 
will  be  at  hand. 

All  three  of  these  can  be  printed  either  separately  or  in  one  volume,  and 
should  be  in  the  order  mentioned. 

Of  course,  the  publication  in  this  elaborate  form  presupposes  that  the 
method  of  the  experiment  is  sound  and  that  no  hitches  occurred  which  in- 
validate the  results.  Only  by  labeling  that  which  really  is  scientific,  will 
there  ever  be  a  science  of  educational  experimentation. 

3.     Review,  criticism,  and  if  need  be,  complete  or  partial  revision 
by  Seminar. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION 


6: 


This  report,  after  having  been  prepared,  should  then  be  presented  to 
the  seminar  again  for  review,  final  criticism,  and  such  revision  as  may  be 
necessary.  This  will  insure  its  being;  presented  to  the  public  in  the  best 
possible  shape. 

4.  Dissemination  of  the  several  kinds  of  reports  by  most  effective 
and  economical  means  so  as  to  hasten  the  development  of  a 
science  of  educational  method  and  favorably  affect  current  ed- 
ucational practice. 

It  is  felt  that  there  is  not  much  use  in  working  out  these  experiments 
behind  the  seminar  doors  if  we  do  not  let  the  teachers  of  the  country  know 
about  them,  and,  therefore,  this  heading  has  been  included,  under  which 
is  to  be  considered  the  dissemination  of  the  several  kinds  of  reports  by 
the  most  effective  and  economical  means  so  as  to  hasten  the  development 
of  a  science  of  educational  method,  and  favorably  affect  the  current  edu- 
cational practice. 

It  is  suggested  that  for  the  experiments  which  follow,  the  jjrief  ab- 
stract might  best  be  published  through  the  business  education  journals,  as 
it  will  reach  most  of  the  commercial  teachers  in  that  way.  It  might  also  be 
presented  to  the  Commercial  Teachers'  Conventions. 

The  summary  might  be  sent  to  such  journals  as  the 

Journal  of  Educational  Psychology. 

School  &  Society. 

Journal  of  Educational  Administration  &  Supervision. 

The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  might  be  willing  to  publish  either  the 
abstract  or  the  summary. 

The  detailed  report  should  be  filed  with  a  few  of  the  universities  inter- 
ested in  this  type  of  work. 

E.     THE  EXPERIMENTS 
\\'e  shall  now  i^roceed  to  the  experiments  themselves, 
a.     TYPEWRITING: 


On  this  subject  there  will  be  developed  methods  of  procedure  for  five 
experiments. 

The  first  one  is  on  the  question  of  speed  and  accuracy. 


^f 


oyt  ttr  V 


-IV  rt'"     VrtT.,i.vi-Ti-Mn<: 


•'.«t>lv  afei?r  iMiiur  tiiiSittrrturr.    ami  tet -iipw^ti 'will  fstic  .aur 
•»«»J'<^  mssw^tl  tteFWOtxt  tint'  nirmistf  n :  tkt:  aisiniir. 

c  onm:  ^moiituswi  tasit 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  67 

question  arises :     "Do  these  two  factors  bear  an  equal  relation  to  each 
other r" 

An  easy  solution  seems  to  appear  when  we  consider  the  matter  from  the 
demands  of  the  business  world.  We  are  preparing  the  students  for  bus- 
iness. What  does  the  business  man  want  ?  Does  he  issue  any  regulations 
that  no  erasers  may  be  used  in  his  office?  Investigation  has  brought  to 
light  only  one  man  who  claims  he  has  done  this.  Undoubtedly,  by  far 
the  large  majority  of  business  offices  have  no  such  regulations.  Yet  there 
are  teachers  in  our  schools  who  will  not  permit  an  eraser  within  the 
class  room,  despite  the  fact  tliat  they  must  know  that  everyone  of  their 
siudents  uses  an  eraser  after  he  leaves  the  school.  The  business  man 
wants  neither  speed  nor  accuracy ;  he  wants  the  combination.  He  wants 
the  person  who  can  turn  out  for  him  the  greatest  number  of  acceptable 
letters,  and  by  this  word  "acceptable"  he  means  correctl\-  transcribed  and 
neatly  written.  He  does  not  care  whether  the  stenographer  has  used  an? 
eraser  or  not.  As  long  as  the  stenographer  has  made  a  good  job  of  it  and 
has  gotten  out  her  day's  work,  he  does  not  care  how  many  times  she  has 
used  the  eraser.     That  is  the  business  man's  test. 

To  meet  the  exact  conditions  of  the  test  it  would  be  necessary  for  us 
to  measure  how  much  time  is  lost  in  erasing.  Here  is  the  problem :  Can 
this  girl,  who  writes  fast  and  must  erase  occasionally,  turn  out  in  a  day 
more  work  that  is  acceptable  than  the  girl  who  writes  more  slowly  but 
does  not  lose  any  time  erasing?  That  is  the  exact  problem,  but  there  are 
so  many  factors  entering  into  it,  that  at  this  stage  we  cannot  attempt  to 
solve  it  completely.  Some  such  factors  are :  length  of  time  taken  by  dif- 
ferent individuals  to  make  the  same  erasure,  time  required  by  the  same 
person  at  different  times  for  erasures,  the  nature  of  the  mistake,  and, 
therefore,  th6  kind  of  erasure  necessary,  the  fact  that  we  do  not  know 
what  relation  the  mistakes  bear  to  the  speed  being  used,  etc. 

Since  the  ideal  is  beyond  reach  at  this  time,  we  must  search  for  the 
best  substitute  that  will  answer  our  purposes  in  teaching. 

There  is  a  substitute  in  the  way  of  a  marking  system,  which  may  throw 
some  light  on  the  matter  in  the  meanwhile,  and  will,  no  doubt,  answer  our 
purpose,  for  it  takes  account  both  of  sj^ed  and  accuracy  and  is  the  one 
commonly  used  in  many  typewriting  rooms.  The  details  will  be  given 
later. 

The  more  one  thinks  about  the  problem,  the  less  likely  he  is  to  be  abso- 
lutely sure  that  his  solution  is  the  correct  one.  Hence,  it  is  in  an  effort  to 
get  this  matter  cleared  up,  that  this  experiment  is  undertaken. 


I 


68  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

b.  SURVEY  OF  EXPERIMENTS  MADE. 

The  search  for  experiments  made  in  this  field  has  revealed  but  one.  that 
by  Frederick  Lyman  Wells,  "On  the  Psychomotor  Mechanisms  of  Type- 
writing," printed  in  the  "American  Journal  of  Psychology,"  January 
1916,  Vol.  XXVII,  pp.  47-70. 

c.  Differentiation. 

This  experiment  was  undertaken  with  a  broader  object  in  view  than  the 
one  under  consideration,  viz.,  that  of  inquiring  into  increasing  the  effici- 
ency of  typewriting  on  the  psychological  side.  As  a  by-product  the  ex- 
perimenter has  made  some  observations  on  the  relation  of  speed  and  ac- 
curacy.    The  experiment  was  made  with  two  typists  as  subjects. 

The  one  under  consideration  will  deal  particularly  with  speed  and  accu- 
racy and  is  planned  for  a  much  larger  scale. 

2.     Specific  Statement. 

This  experiment  is  undertaken  to  try  to  determine  whether  emphasizing 
speed  in  typewriting  interferes  with  accuracy  or  not,  and.  if  so,  to  what 
extent. 

II.     SELECTION  OF  LABORATORY 

I.     Groups  Chosen.  . 

To  conduct  this  experiment  two  groups  of  pupils  will  be  rfecessary.  one 
to  be  known  as  Section  A  (Accuracy  Section)  and  the  other  as  Section 
B   ( Speed  Section ) . 

The  pupils  may  be  those  of  any  class* — beginners,  advanced  students 
or  experts — and  the  experiment  need  not  be  confined  to  those  of  any  one 
age.  It  might  be  of  advantage  to  see  how  the  experiment  works  with  differ- 
ent classes  of  pupils,  and  with  pupils  of  a  wide  range  in  age,  always  being 
certain,  however,  that  an  e^iual  number  of  pupils  of  the  same  class  or  age 
is  in  each  section,  so  as  to  keep  them  balanced.  It  may  be  that  the  rela- 
tion of  speed  and  accuracy  is  entirely  different  with  pupils  of  the  grades 
than  with  those  of  the  high  school,  and  even  a  wider  difference  may  be 
noted  if  we  were  to  test  out  expert  typsists,  who  have  been  in  business 


*The  procedure  outlined   presupposes  that  students   have   at   least   reached   the 
-stage  where  their  speed  in  typewriting  can  be  tested. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  69 

for  several  years.  Therefore,  the  wider  the  range  of  groups  tested, 
the  better  it  would  be,  provided  in  each  case,  complete  information  on  this 
point  accompanies  the  results. 

2.  Schools  Chosen. 

a.  As  implied  above,  it  will  be  well  to  test  the  matter  out  in  as  many 
schools  as  possible  and  in  several  grades  of  schools,  to  see  whether  the 
result  remains  uniform  or  not. 

b.  The  schools  should,  of  course,  be  accessible  to  the  experimenter  as 
-mentioned  on  p.  36  ff. 

c.  The  necessary  co-operation  should  exist,  as  referred  to  on  p.  38  ff. 
The  laboratory  should  be  the  typewriting  room  of  the  school. 

3.  Teachers  Chosen. 

One  teacher  should  have  charge  of  both  groups,  to  eliminate  differences 
in  personalities.  She  should  be  the  regular  teacher  for  the  class  and 
should  meet  the  requirements  set  forth  on  p.  41  ff. 

III.  CHOICE  OF  CONDUCTOR 

It  would  seem  best  to  have  the  regular  teacher  take  charge  of  the  work 
■during  the  course  of  the  experiment. 

IV.  DEVELOPMENT  OF  A   PROCEDURE 
I.     Content. 

General  Plan  in  Brief. 

The  ])rocedure  in  this  experiment  requires  that  one  section  emphasize 
speed  while  the  other  emphasizes  accuracy.  The  sections  are  to  be  equal- 
ized by  a  series  of  tests  and,  at  the  expiration  of  the  time  determined, 
final  tests  will  be  given  which  are  to  be  compared  with  the  preliminary 
tests. 

a.     Difficulties. 

(i)     Tests. 

Preliminarv  test. 


70  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

A  preliminary  test  will  be  necessary  in  order  to  obtain  data  which  will 
represent  the  typewriting  ability  of  the  pupils  at  the  beginning  of  the  ex- 
periment. 

Equalization  test. 

An  equalization  test  will  be  necessary  to  insure  the  equality  of  the  two 
sections  in  typewriting  ability  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment. 

One  test  can  answer  the  purposes  of  the  preliminary  and  equalization: 
tests.  In  designating  it,  use  will  be  made  of  the  name  that  indicates  the 
purpose  in  mind  at  the  time. 

If  we  had  a  typewriting  norm,  our  work  would  be  made  easy  by  using 
it,  but  since  we  have  none,  the  following  equalization  test  is  suggested : 

Give  the  students  a  ten  minute  speed  test  similar  to  the  monthly  tests- 
encouraged  by  the  Underwood  Typewriter  Co.,  using  the  same  rules  and 
copy  matter.  Give  a  series  of  these  tests  and  on  the  basis  of  the  number 
of  net  words  written  per  minute,  classify  the  students,  placing  in  each- 
section  an  equal  number  of  students  having  the  same  speed,  and  rating" 
the  section  by  the  sum  total  of  all  the  performances.  For  instance,  if  there- 
are  four  students  having  20  words  per  minute,  we  shall  place  two  in  Sec- 
tion A  and  two  in  Section  B.  Section  A  would  then  have  a  sum  total  o£ 
40  words,  and  Section  B  would  have  the  same,  etc. 

A  ten-minute  period  seems  to  be  the  proper  length  and  is  the  one  recom- 
mended by  the  Underwood  Typewriter  Co.  and  used  in  many  schools.  In 
the  absence  of  any  better  rules,  those  of  the  International  Typewriting 
Contest  should  be  used.  They  are  not  as  scientific  as  could  be  desired,  but 
they  are  objective,  at  least,  and  very  definite.  The  penalty  is  arbitrary  but 
it  takes  cognizance  of  the  accuracy  factor  in  typewriting. 

A  series  of  tests  has  been  suggested.  It  would  not  be  fair  to  classify 
the  students  on  the  basis  of  one  test.  Very  few  students  show  a  uniform, 
record  in  typewriting  tests.  There  is  considerable  difiference  between  two 
successive  days  and  even  between  two  tests  given  during  the  same  period. 
See  Appendix,  p.  ii,  for  data  regarding  this.  Any  one  of  a  number 
of  causes  may  be  responsible  for  this  variation. 

How  many  tests  should  constitute  the  series?  The  greater  the  number 
of  tests,  the  fairer  would  seem  the  average.  But  an  unlimited  number  of 
tests  is  undesirable  for  several  reasons : 

I .  Time  would  not  permit.  No  school  system  could  spend  several 
months  in  a  preliminary  or  final  test  just  for  the  sake  of  get- 
ting averages. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  71 

2.  The  students  would  become  tired  of  the  matter ;  interest  would 

lag;  and  it  is  a  question  as  to  whether  or  not  we  would  really 
be  getting  the  kind  of  work  from  the  students  that  would 
properly  show  their  average  speed. 

3.  The  test  would  take  the  form  of  a  drill,  and  both  sections  would 

have  had  so  much  of  the  work  alike  that  the  comparatively 
short  time  devoted  to  the  experiment  would  have  very  little 
efifect.  All  the  tests  should  be  on  the  identical  material  to  get 
an  average,  and  that  would  be  drill  indeed  for  both  sections. 

The  line  must  be  drawn  somewhere.  Three  have  been  chosen  as  possi- 
bly the  most  desirable  number  in  view  of  the  objections  raised  above. 

The  average  of  the  three  preliminary  tests  may  then  be  taken  to  be  con- 
sidered the  speed  of  the  student  before  the  experiment  begins. 

The  average  of  the  three  final  tests  may  then  be  taken  to  be  considered 
the  speed  of  the  student  after  the  experiment  has  been  completed. 

The  difference  between  the  two  would  then  show  what  the  student  has 
gained  during  the  time  the  experiment  was  in  progress. 

When  the  question  was  being  considered  in  the  Seminar,  it  was  the  con- 
census of  opinion  that  the  average  speed  should  be  taken  as  the  basis  for 
these  tests  and  the  writer  fully  agreed  with  this  view.  He  is  now  some- 
what inclined  to  think  that  this  may  not  be  the  proper  thing,  favoring  the 
use  of  the  student's  best  record  out  of  the  three  as  the  basis  for  classifica- 
tion. When  asking  an  athlete  for  his  speed  he  does  not  give  it  in  terms  of 
an  average  but  of  his  best  performance.  The  same  is  true  of  race  horses ; 
and  experience  with  typists  has  shown  that  they  almost  invariably  give 
their  best  record  when  asked  what  their  speed  is.  This  basis  uses  the 
maximum  attainment  of  the  typist,  and  if  our  purpose  is  to  see  how  much 
speed  he  has  gained,  it  would  seem  that  the  maximum  would  more  truly 
tell  the  tale.  Therefore  it  is  suggested  that  three  tests  be  given  in  a  series 
but  that  the  highest  speed  of  the  three  be  used  as  a  basis  for  classificaion. 

Conduct  of  Test. 

The  test  is  conducted  in  this  way : 

At  a  given  signal,  the  students  write  from  copy  for  10  minutes.  At  the 
end  of  10  minutes  the  teacher  gives  the  signal  and  all  machines  stop.  The 
words  written  are  counted.  This  gives  the  total  number  of  gross  words 
written  in  10  minutes.  This  total  divided  by  10  (the  number  of  minutes) 
gives  the  number  of  gross  words  per  minute.  The  teacher  then  reads 
aloud  from  the  copy  and  the  students  mark  the  errors.  The  errors  are 
counted  and  multiplied  by  the  penalty,  which  is  10  for  each  word  wrong. 


& 


72  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

(Prior  to  1918  the  penalty  was  5  for  each  word  wrong.)  The  total  pen- 
alty is  subtracted  from  the  total  number  of  gross  words  for  10  minutes 
and  this  gives  the  total  number  of  net  words  for  10  minutes.  Divide  by  10 
(the  number  of  minutes)  and  we  get  the  number  of  net  words  per  minute 
— the  important  figure  and  the  one  by  which  the  student  is  to  be  rated. 
For  example:  One  has  written  750  words;  750  is  the  total  gross  for  10 
minutes;  dividing  by  10,  one  gets  75.  which  is  one's  gross  speed  per  min- 
ute. Suppose  one  makes  4  errors;  multiply  the  4  by  10,  the  penalty,  and 
one  gets  40.  which  is  the  total  penalty.  Subtract  the  total  penalty  from 
the  gross  (40  from  750)  and  one  gets  710,  the  total  net  words  for  10 
minutes;  dividing  by  10,  one  gets  71  as  the  net  number  of  words  per  min- 
ute.   We  say  that  ones  speed  is  75  words  gross,  71  words  net,  per  minute. 

The  papers  should  be  marked  in  this  way  by  three  different  students 
to  insure  care,  each  student  signing  his  name  to  the  paper. 

This  is  very  definite  and  very  objective,  and  something  that  is  exactly 
understood  in  typewriting  circles. 

The  International  Typewriting  Contest  Rules,  under  which  this  test  is 
conducted,  are  given  in  the  Appendix,  p.  i  ff. 

A  more  accurate  way  of  calculating  typewriting  speed  would  be  by 
movements  rather  than  by  words.  Words  are  of  such  varying  lengths  that 
they  would  seem  to  afford  no  accurate  method  of  measuring.  And  yet,  on 
investigation  it  develops  that  the  material  used  in  the  International  Type- 
writing Contests  is  surprisingly  uniform  in  the  long  run.  While  there 
may  be  some  lines  that  contain  20  words  and  others  that  contain  only  10 
words,  when  it  comes  to  500  words,  they  cover  very  nearly  the  same  num- 
ber of  line  (see  Appendix,  p.  ii  or  iii),  and  therefore  there  is  not  so  much 
variation  as  would  appear  on  the  face. 

Mr.  Sherwin  Cody,  Managing  Director  of  Business  Standards  Asso- 
ciation, New  York  City,  has  devised  a  method  of  counting  stroke-words. 
He  says,  "The  average  word  in  ordinary  business  letter  writing  is  a  frac- 
tion over  four  strokes  and  for  convenience  I  have  adopted  the  standard 
stroke-word  of  four  strokes  and  with  one  space.  This  makes  five  strokes." 
One  of  the  test  letters  sent  out  by  the  Association,  containing  200  stroke- 
words,  totals  184  actual  words.  A  page  of  the  International  Typewriting 
Contest  material,  taken  at  random,  was  counted  and  found  to  contain  507 
stroke- words  and  551  actual  words.  Counting  stroke- words  requires  con- 
siderably more  time  than  the  other. 

Final  Test. 

A  final  test  will  be  given  at  the  conclusion  of  the  experiment  to  ascer- 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION 


/o 


tain  the  speed  of  the  students  at  that  time.  The  test  will  be  similar  in  all 
respects  to  the  preliminary  or  equalization  test — the  same  number  in  the 
series  and  the  same  copy. 

(2)  PVeliminary  Conferences. 

As  the  procedure  for  the  experiment  is  not  difficult,  it  will  not  be  neces- 
sary to  have  extended  conferences  with  the  school  officials.  Complete  in- 
structions could  very  well  be  sent  by  mail. 

(3)  Other  Difficulties.       . 

Procedure  with  knowledge  or  without. 

Another  question  that  faces  us  is:  "Shall  the  students  be  told  the  pur- 
n-^co  <5f  fi-jg  experiment,  etc.,  or  shall  they  not?" 

Undoubtedly  it  will  be  found  that  something  must  be  said  to  the  stu- 
dents. They  will  ascertain  that  there  is  a  difference  in  the  work  of  the  two 
sections  and  w  ill  begin  lo  ask  and  then  form  suspicions  of  their  own.  So 
the  teacher  might  just  as  well  tell  them  frankly  at  the  beginning  and  thus 
avoid  further  questionings.  The  first  time  the  present  experiment  was 
conducted  an  attempt  was  made  (on  the  recommendation  of  the  Seminar) 
to  proceed  without  telling  the  students  anything,  but  it  could  not  be  done, 
and,  finally,  with  the  consent  of  the  Seminar,  something  was  told  them. 

Therefore,  when  trying  the  ex])eriment  again,  the  classes  were  told 
at  the  start,  "W'e  are  now  going  to  pit  the  two  sections  of  the  class  against 
each  other  for  six  weeks,  and  we  are  going  to  see  which  section  can  come 
out  ahead.  Your  section  will  be  given  work  slightly  different  from  the 
other  section."  That  was  sufficient  information  to  satisfy  the  great  ma- 
jority and  things  i)roceeded  nicel\'.  One  class  even  became  very  indifferent 
to  the  information,  whereas  if  they  had  not  been  told,  they  would  likely 
have  kept  asking  until  something  had  been  told  them. 

The  chief  reason  for  the  Seminar  not  wishing  anything  said  was  that 
they  felt  that  if  the  students  got  the  notion  that  the  determination  of  the 
future  policy  rested  ui)on  the  experiment  and  that  the  school  would  intro- 
duce the  one  which  showed  up  best,  they  would  work  according  to  their 
own  i)rejudices  and  would  see  to  it  that  the  method  they  disliked  did  not 
succeed,  irrespective  of  its  merits.  But  the  way  to  bridge  this  difficulty 
lies  in  not  telling  them  too  nuich  ;  i.  e..  they  should  not  be  told  thai  any 
future  policy  depends  u})on  it,  but  it  may  be  said  that  this  is  being  done  in 
connection  with  work  at  the  University,  which  immediately  satisfies  many. 

b.     Time. 


74  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

The  experiment  could  be  undertaken  at  almost  any  time  when  vacations 
do  not  interfere. 

c.  Periods. 

The  precautions  laid  down  on  p.  56  ff.  should  have  consideration  in 
determining  the  periods  for  this  experiment.  Typewriting  is  not  work 
that  requires  much  concentration,  to  be  sure,  but  yet  if  one  section  has 
more  favorable  periods  than  the  other,  this  factor  may  cause  a  difference 
in  the  results. 

d.  Subject-matter. 

For  the  tests,  any  non-technical  matter  would  be  suitable.  The  copy 
used  in  the  International  Typewriting  Contests  and  the  monthly  Under- 
wood tests  would  be  thoroughly  satisfactory.  Both  of  these  can  be  ob- 
tained from  the  Underwood  Typewriter  Co. 

For  the  regular  class  work,  during  the  experiment,  the  typewriting  text 
book  in  use  at  the  school  would  be  suitable  for  the  accuracy  work.  Any 
of  the  material  suggested  for  the  tests  could  be  used  for  speed  work.  Of 
course,  it  should  not  be  the  identical  thing  used  in  the  preliminary  or  final 
tests. 

e.  Details  of  Procedure. 

Details  in  General. 

Each  of  the  classes  will  be  divided  into  two  sections.  They  will  be 
known  in  the  school  as  Section  A  and  Section  B.  That  group  of  each  class 
which  devotes  all  its  time  to  accuracy  we  shall  call  the  Accuracy  Group ; 
and  that  group  which  devotes  part  (say  half)  of  its  time  to  accuracy  and 
part  of  its  time  to  speed  (i.  e.,  it  is  emphasizing  speed)  we  shall  call  the 
Speed  Group. 

While  each  is  doing  the  accuracy  work  they  will  both  follow  the  identi- 
cal schedule ;  the  only  point  of  differentiation  will  come  on  the  speed 
days. 

While  a  group  is  devoting  its  time  to  accuracy  it  v/ill  do  the  regular 
typewriting  exercises  of  the  class. 

Accuracy  will  be  emphasized  by  not  permitting  the  student  to  pass  to 
the  next  exercise  until  he  has  presented  an  absolutely  perfect  copy  of  the 
previous  one.    As  already  explained,  one  group  will  be  required  to  follow 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION 


/D 


this  jjrocedure  all  the  periods  during  the  week,  while  the  other  group  will 
be  required  to  follow  it  only  part  of  the  time. 

While  Section  B  is  devoting  its  time  to  speed,  it  will  be  conducted  as 
follows : 

The  co})y  used  in  any  of  the  International  Typewriting  Contests  can  be 
used  as  subject-matter.  The  class  will  be  instructed  that  for  the  period 
they  will  do  speed  work — they  will  write  just  as  fast  as  they  can  without 
becoming  careless,  but  yet  paying  no  attention  to  errors.  They  will  not 
stop  to  correct  errors. 

For  the  purpose  of  creating  some  interest,  various  ones  of  the  class 
may  be  selected  as  pace-makers.  The  choice  is  usually  made  from  among 
those  near  the  head  of  the  class  for  speed.  At  a  given  signal  all  will  start 
at  a  given  place  in  the  copy  and  write  until  the  pace-maker  reaches  the  bot- 
tom of  the  page,  say.  He  is  told  to  raise  his  hand  as  a  signal  when  he  has 
reached  the  bottom  of  the  page.  Then  time  is  called  and  notes  are  com- 
pared to  see  how  far  each  student  has  gotten.  By  way  of  variety  it  may 
also  be  done  this  way :  Each  student  will  write  just  as  fast  as  he  can.  The 
first  one  reaching  a  certain  point  in  the  copy  will  raise  his  hand.  Then 
time  will  be  called  and  notes  compared.  Another  slight  variation  will  be 
to  write  for  5  or  lo  minutes  and  see  who  gets  the  furthest.  In  this  way 
the  students  will  work  at  top  notch  speed. 

( I  )      Copies  of  Instructions  with  Precautions. 

The  copies  of  instructions  given  to  the  helpers  should  give  the  details 
of  procedure. 

The  copy  matter  used  in  the  tests  should  be  put  out  of  reach  of  the  pu- 
pils, so  that  no  one  can  use  the  copy  for  practice. 

The  teacher  should  see  to  it  that  no  student  in  the  experiment  does  any 
typewriting  outside  of  the  regular  typewriting  period.  It  would  be  un- 
fair if  some  of  the  students  were  permitted  to  come  into  the  typewriting 
room  for  practice  after  school  during  the  period  of  the  experiment.  Care 
must  also  be  taken  to  see  that  no  student  uses  a  machine  outside  of  the 
school  during  the  progress  of  the  experiment.  In  other  words,  the  time 
element  must  be  kept  the  same  for  all  the  students  in  the  experiment. 
■Otherwise  that  permits  another  varying  factor  which  would  absolutely  in- 
validate the  results.  Only  by  permitting  each  person  the  same  amount  of 
practice  can  the  results  be  expected  to  show  anything  valid. 

(2)     Time  Limits. 

The  next  thing  to  be  considered  is  the  length  of  time  that  is  to  be  de- 
voted to  the  actual  experiment.    Regarding  this  we  can  give  certain  broad 


76  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

statements  only.  It  would  appear  that  the  longer  the  period  of  the  ex- 
periment, the  better.  But  we  can  hardly  find  a  school  system  that  would 
be  willing  to  devote  a  w^hole  year  to  the  experiment.  The  danger  of  put- 
ting one  section  at  too  great  a  disadvantage  over  the  other  must  be  con- 
sidered. It  is  c[uestionable  whether  or  not  a  teacher  could  keep  the  stu- 
dents of  both  sections  working  at  top  notch  for  so  long  a  period.  Some 
would  become  disgruntled  and  not  do  their  best,  and  that,  of  course, 
would  bring  in  a  factor  that  would  destroy  the  validity  of  the  results.  For 
valid  results,  we  assume  that  both  sections  are  working  at  a  high  point  of 
efficiency,  and  that  there  is  no  such  disturbing  element  as  antagonism. 

The  question  as  to  the  time  that  can  be  devoted  to  the  experiment  will 
depend  largely  upon  the  period  the  authorities  are  willing  to  give.  West 
Chester  tried  it  for  six  weeks  because  that  was  all  the  time  it  was  felt 
could  be  devoted  to  it.  This,  together  with  the  preliminary  and  final  tests,, 
made  it  a  matter  of  more  than  two  months  with  some  of  the  classes,  de- 
pending upon  the  number  of  times  they  recited  during  the  week. 

In  setting  aside  the  time  one  wants  to  be  sure  that  there  will  be  no  such 
disturbing  elements  as  an  extended  vacation  occurring  in  the  middle  of 
the  experiment ;  for  instance,  Christmas  vacation  or  Easter  vacation.  The 
experiment  would  better  be  tried  between  these  two  vacations  so  that  they 
will  not  interfere.  The  preliminary  tests  would  best  not  be  conducted  at 
the  first  recitation  after  returning  from  the  Christmas  vacation,  for  the- 
students'  fingers  will  be  stiff  and  the  tests  will  not  be  fairly  representative. 

(3)  Form,  Order  and  Method. 

There  is  no  particular  form,  order,  or  method  of  giving  directions  in 
this  experiment.  The  teacher  may  use  her  own  words  to  make  the  matter 
clear  to  the  students. 

( 4 )  Record  should  be  made  of  any  interruptions,  etc.,  as  mentioned 
on  p.  59  fit'. 

2.     Form. 

The  balance  of  the  outline  covers  conditions  which  are  very  general  and 
apply  to  all  the  experiments.     Since  they  are  given  fully  on  p.  62  fif.,  it 
11  will  not  be  necessary  to  repeat  them  here. 

a.     TYPEWRITING. 

Experiment  No.  2.     The  Proper  Age  at  Which  to  Begin  Typewriting, 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  j-j 

I.     FORMULATION 
I.     Introduction. 

a.  General  Statement. 

Among  the  numerous  unsettled  matters  of  the  typewriting  room  is  the 
question  of  the  most  advantageous  age  for  beginning  the  study  of 
Typewriting.  The  subject  is  now  taught  in  many  of  our  high  schools. 
The  question  of  teaching  it  in  the  jimior  high  school  has  come  up.  Some 
schools  are  already  teaching  it  in  the  grades.  Is  it  a  subject  that  the  pupils 
in  the  grades  or  in  the  junior  high  school  can  learn  economically?*  By 
"economically"  is  meant  obtaining  the  proper  returns  for  the  amount  of 
time  and  effort  spent  on  the  subject.  We  get  "yes"  and  "no"  for  the 
answer.  At  any  rate,  what  is  the  proper  age  at  which  to  begin  the  study 
of  Typewriting,  or  at  what  age  is  it  most  economical  to  begin  the  study  of 
Typewriting  ? 

b.  Survey  of  Experiments  Made. 

The  search  for  experiments  has  revealed  nothing  along  the  line  of  the 
one  under  consideration. 

2.     Specific  Statement. 

This  experiment  is  undertaken  to  try  to  determine  the  age  at  which  it  is 
most  economically  advantageous  for  a  person  to  begin  the  study  of  Type 
writing. 

By  "economically"  is  meant  getting  the  most  returns  for  the  amount  of 
time  expended.  Effort,  of  course,  may  enter  as  an  offsetting  factor.  We 
find  pupils  who  are  very  ambitious  and  put  forth  a  great  deal  of  effort. 
Others  put  forth  very  little.  But  these  are  rather  the  extremes.  The  ma- 
jority of  students  in  a  typewriting  room,  we  can  say,  put  forth  a  normal 
amount  of  effort,  and  that  is  what  we  take  for  granted  is  being  done.  Of 
course,  if  a  child  puts  forth  an  unusual  amount  of  effort,  he  will  accom- 


*This,  of  course,  is  not  the  only  question  to  be  solved  if  we  are  going  to  take 
pupils  into  the  typewriting  room  from  the  grades.  There  is  the  question  of  how 
are  we  going  to  stretch  out  the  subject  over  5  or  6  years.  The  students  must  have 
it  in  their  senior  year  to  be  in  shape  when  they  get  out  into  business.  Special 
equipment  will  have  to  be  furnished,  which  means  added  expense.  The  machines 
in  the  high  school  cannot  be  used.  Seats  are  too  high  and  the  feet  of  the  grade 
children  will  dangle.  Drop-top  desks  cannot  be  used  or  the  teacher  will  have  to 
open  the  desks  for  many  of  the  pupils  who  do  not  have  sufficient  strength. 


78  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

})lish  more  in  an  hour  than  otherwise,  but  reference  is  made  to  the  gen- 
eral run  of  students.  If  we  know  what  to  expect  for  the  general  run  of 
students,  the  exception  must  then  either  outstrip  them  or  fall  below  their 
record. 

II.     SELECTION  OF  LABORATORY 

I.     Groups  Chosen. 

For  this  experiment  pupils  of  various  ages  should  be  chosen.  It  would 
be  well  to  have  groups  with  two  years  intervening  between  them.  If  we 
take  groups  with  only  one  year's  difference,  it  might  be  difficult  to  get  the 
required  number  whose  birthdays  are  close  enough  to  really  make  a  differ- 
ence in  the  groups.  For  instance,  if  a  child  were  lo  years  and  5  months 
old  and  another  were  10  years  and  7  months  old,  putting  the  one  into  the 
lo-year-old  grou|)  and  the  other  into  the  ii-year-old  group  (classifying 
them  according  to  their  nearest  birthday)  would  not  give  us  much  of  a 
difference  in  the  groups.  On  the  other  hand,  if  we  were  to  disregard  the 
months  and  simply  take  into  consideration  the  years,  then  the  lo-year-ii- 
month-old  child  would  not  be  far  enough  from  the  11 -year- 1 -month-old 
child  to  place  them  in  separate  groups,  and  we  would  have  the  same  diffi- 
culty. Therefore,  by  making  the  difference  two  years,  we  are  more  likely 
to  be  able  to  get  different  groups. 

The  next  question  is  :  How  near  should  a  pupil  be  to  the  year  set  for 
the  group  and  still  be  included  in  that  group?  It  is  rather  difficult  to  set 
a  definite  age ;  for  instance,  to  say  3  months  and  then  rule  out  someone 
who  is  a  day  or  two  outside  of  that  limit.  For  the  purposes  of  the  experi- 
ment, to  be  sure,  the  person  of  that  age  would  answer  just  as  well  as  the 
one  coming  entirely  within  the  limit.  Possibly  the  best  that  can  be  done 
is  to  lay  down  some  broad  principle  and  then  let  the  experimenter  decide 
each  individual  case  that  gives  trouble.*  It  will  likely  be  agreed  by  all, 
that  no  one  of  the  intervening  year  should  be  included.  For  instance,  if 
we  make  groups  of  8,  10,  and  12  years,  the  students  of  9  and  11  years 
should  be  excluded.  Or,  it  might  be  worked  this  way  :  Let  the  groups 
contain  those  a  half  year  each  side  of  8,  of  10,  and  of  12. 

After  having  decided  the  range  of  each  group,  let  us  say  2  years,  it  will 
then  be  necessary  to  ascertain  how  many  groups  are  to  be  included  in  the 
experiment.     Since  the  object  is  to  determine  the  most  suitable  age,  the 


*0f  cour.se,  all  this  should  be  noted  in  the  write-up  of  the  experiment,  so  that 
if  any  variation  is  noticed,  some  facts  may  be  at  hand,  which  can  be  searched  for 
a  cause. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  79 

experiment  should  include  as  large  a  scope  in  this  direction  as  possible. 
Therefore,  it  would  seem  wise  to  take  a  group  from  the  youngest  teachable 
age  for  typewriting,  let  us  say  10  years  old4  We  also  want  them  just  as 
old  as  they  can  be  obtained.  So  let  us  take  these  from  the  high  school, 
which  might  give  us  some  18  years  of  age.  This  then  would  give  us  5 
groups,  viz.,  10,  12,  14,  16,  18  years  of  age,  respectively. 

These  groups  should  be  as  large  as  possible,  keeping  the  number  in 
each  group  vuiiform.  The  groups  will  be  designated  as  follows:  the  10- 
year-old  group,  the  12-year-old  group,  the  14-year-old-group,  the  16-year- 
old  group,  the  18-year-old  group. 

It  may  not  be  possible  to  get  as  many  in  the  18-year-old  group  as  in  the 
others,  but  even  if  only  a  few  can  be  secured,  it  would  be  better  to  include 
them  than  not  to  have  any  of  that  age  at  all.  The  results  need  not  neces- 
sarily be  included  as  part  of  the  findings  of  the  experiment,  but  on  the 
other  hand  they  may  throw  some  interesting  light  on  the  matter. 

The  students  making  the  highest  marks  (say  90  and  above)  would  af- 
ford the  most  enthusiastic  material  for  a  teacher  to  work  upon,  and  it  is 
suggested  that  these  be  the  ones  used  for  the  experiment.  They  can  be 
selected  without  nuich  difficulty,  and  if  it  is  found  that  the  younger  groups 
are  not  making  the  progress  that  the  older  groups  are,  we  can  safely  say 
that  mediocre  and  poor  students  from  the  same  groups  will  not  make  any 
more  progress. 

If  we  are  going  to  take  all  the  students  as  we  find  them,  it  will  be  neces- 
sar\'  to  give  an  intelligence  test  for  there  are  likely  to  be  mental  defectives 
among  the  younger  ones,  and,  according  to  word  from  The  Training 
School  at  Vineland,  N.  J.,  they  have  had  no  success  with  this  kind  of  work. 

2.     School  Chosen. 

a.  .  The  school  chosen  will,  of  course,  have  to  be  one  that  is  equipped 
for  teaching  typewriting,  and  the  experiment  will  take  place  in  the  type- 
writing room. 

b.  Accessibility. 

The  school  should  be  accessible  to  the  experimenter,  as  explained  on  p. 
36  ff. 

c.  Co-operation. 


JThis  experiment  was  tried  in  West  Chester,  Pa.  In  talking  the  matter  over 
with  the  grade  teachers  from  whose  classes  the  prospective  students  were  to  be 
taken,  it  was  fcnmd  that  they  agreed  unanimously  and  positively  that  ten  years 
was  as  low  as  they  would  advise  taking  anybody  into  this  experiment.  They  felc 
quite  certain  that  it  would  be  useless  to  work  with  the  8-year-old  pupils.  The 
6-year-olds,  of  course,  do  not  know  how  to  read  and  write,  and  we  could  not  con- 
sider them  for  the  experiment. 


8o  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

It  should  also  be  a  school  where  the  co-operation  of  all  concerned  can 
be  assured,  as  explained  on  p.  38  fit".  Without  co-operation  on  the  part  of 
the  grade  teachers  and  the  students,  it  may  result  in  not  having  a  sufficient 
number  present  during  the  whole  experiment  to  give  results.  A  teacher 
may  on  slightest  provocation  detain  the  pupil  after  school.  The  pupil 
may  make  it  necessary  to  be  kept  in.  (This  is  assuming  that  the  ex- 
periment is  to  be  conducted  after  school.) 

3.     Teachers  Chosen. 

The  teacher  in  charge  of  the  experiment  would  best  be  the  experimenter 
himself. 

If  it  is  necessary  to  place  someone  else  in  charge  of  the  experiment,  then 
a  teacher  should  be  chosen,  who,  because  of  her  ability,  can  be  depended 
upon  to  carry  out  the  experiment  successfully.     See  p.  41  ff. 

III.     CHOICE  OF  CONDUCTOR 

As  mentioned  above,  the  experimenter  would  be  the  most  desirable  per- 
son to  conduct  the  experiment,  as  he  is,  it  is  assumed,  in  possession  of  the 
most  complete  information  on  the  subject  of  the  experiment,  and  can 
most  wisely  make  quick  decisions  on  points  of  emergency  that  arise  during 
the  performance. 

See  p.  44  ff. 

/        IV.     DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  PROCEDURE 
1.     Content. 

(a)      Difficulties. 
Equalization  Tests. 

It  is  assumed  that  each  of  the  pupils  is  beginning  with  zero  ability  in 
the  matter  of  typewriting,  but  are  we  correct? 

Of  course,  one  factor  in  typewriting  is  nimbleness  of  the  fingers.  So  far 
as  this  is  concerned,  we  may  have  considerable  variation  at  the  start,  which 
must  be  guarded  against.  But  this  condition  can  be  met  very  well,  by  in- 
sisting that  none  of  the  pupils  who  have  done  anything  that  would  give 
them  nimble  fingers,  such  as  piano  playing,  violin  playing,  etc.,  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  experiment. 

It  would  be  profitable  to  permit  these  students  to  take  the  work,  but 
their  records  must  be  kept  separate  from  the  others.  A  comparison  would 
tell  whether  or  not  we  are  justified  in  excluding  them. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  8l 

Conducting  the  experiment  on  a  large  scale  would  eliminate  any  other 
individual  differences. 

Final  Tests. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  experiment  a  series  of  speed  tests  should  be 
given  similar  to  those  in  Experiment  No.  i,  explained  on  p.  71.  The 
same  material,  time,  and  method  of  scoring  should  be  used,  with  this  ex- 
ception:  namely,  that  if  the  progress  made  by  the  class  has  not  taken  them 
beyond  the  use  of  the  shift  key  and  punctuation  marks,  the  students  should 
not  be  required  to  use  these  in  writing  the  test. 

(2)      Preliminary  Conferences. 

If  the  experimenter  does  not  do  the  work  himself,  he  will  have  to  con- 
duct preliminary  conferences  with  the  teachers,  and  if  he  uses  assistants  in 
a  large  room  where  he  has  charge,  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  a  confer- 
ence with  them. 

b.  Time. 

The  time  element  will  be  uniform.  Of  course,  it  is  to  be  expected  that 
the  18-year-old  pupils  will  be  able  to  cover  more  ground  than  the  lo-year- 
old  pupils  ill  a  given  time.  We  have  a  choice  of  varying  either  the  ground 
covered  or  the  time  devoted  to  the  work.  It  would  be  much  more  difficult 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  experiment  to  keep  the  ground-covered  element 
the  same ;  it  would  be  easier  to  keep  the  time  element  the  same. 

Furthermore,  one  of  the  factors  in  teaching  typewriting  is  the  time  ele- 
ment, and  that  should  be  considered  in  pronouncing  judgment  upon  a  per- 
son's ability  to  acquire  skill  in  typewriting. 

By  choosing  non-commercial  students,  the  experiment  could  be  under- 
taken at  any  time  of  the  year,  and  any  day  or  days  could  be  used  unless 
certain  days  contained  something  unusual  in  the  program  which  might 
prove  disadvantageous  to  those  taking  the  work  that  day. 

It  woulfl  be  better,  however,  if  lessons  could  be  given  every  day,  so  as 
not  to  permit  any  intervals  that  may  be  too  great  to  do  efficient  work. 

c.  Periods. 

All  of  the  students  could  be  taught  in  one  section,  if  the  typewriting 
room  is  large  enough.  Then  any  period  of  the  day  would  answer  our  pur- 
pose. 

It  would  not  be  detrimental  to  the  experiment,  however,  if  the  students 
are  taught  in  sections.  The  instruction  given  could  easily  l)e  kept  uniform. 
The  chief  factor  is  the  practice  done  by  the  student  himself,  and  he  can  do 


82  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

that  as  effectively  whether  there  are  three  others  taking  it  with  him  or  30, 
and  whether  they  are  the  same  age  or  not. 

If  they  are  taught  in  several  sections,  the  periods  would  have  to  be  so 
chosen  as  not  to  place  any  section  at  an  advantage  over  the  others.  See  p. 
56  ff. 

A  bad  feature  to  this  experiment  will  be  caused  by  the  fact  that  the 
children  of  the  grades  may  have  to  take  the  work  after  school,  at  the  end 
of  their  day,  a  time  when  they  may  not  be  in  the  most  enthusiastic  state  of 
mind.  Yet  the  novelty  of  the  change  may  keep  them  in  good  spirits.  In 
West  Chester  volunteers  were  tried  and  they  showed  no  fatigue  when  the 
period  began  at  3.35  (school  dismissing  at  3.30)  and  showed  no  signs  of 
even  a  lack  of  interest  during  the  40  minute  period.  The  pupils  were, 
however,  all  of  high  grade,  being  those  making  90  and  above  in  their  reg- 
ular work. 

All  students  should  take  it  at  the  same  time  of  day,  the  program  pre- 
ceding being  approximately  equal.  If  the  grades  take  the  work  after 
school,  the  high  school  students  should  take  it  at  that  time  also. 

The  length  of  the  period  should  be  whatever  the  school  requires  for  the 
regular  typewriting  classes.  Three-fourths  of  an  hour  is  used  in  a  great 
many  schools — possibly  in  most  of  the  schools  in  the  country. 

d.     Subject-matter. 

The  pupils  ought  to  be  taught  whatever  is  given  in  that  particular  school 
to  beginners  in  typewriting.  It  ought  not  to  make  any  difference  what 
typewriting  manual  is  used,  as  long  as  the  manual  used  is  a  good  one 
and  as  long  as  all  the  students  use  the  same  manual.  The  teacher,  of 
course,  will  have  to  use  simpler  words  in  her  explanations  to  the  younger 
students  than  to  the  high  school  students ;  aside  from  this,  the  method  of 
teaching  would  be  the  same.  It  does  not  seem  wise  for  the  purposes  of 
the  experiment  to  give  more  than  the  minimum  essentials  of  the  mechanical 
details.  For  instance.  "Cylinder  stop  spring  lever,"  etc.,  would  engulf  the 
lo-year-olds.     Most  of  the  time  should  be  spent  on  actual  typewriting. 

Touch  typewriting  is  the  method  used  in  most  of  the  schools  of  the 
country  and  should  be  taught  in  this  experiment. 

It  might  be  well  to  measure  the  progress  at  dift'erent  stages,  say  every 
two  months,  to  see  whether  the  advance  of  the  one  group  over  the  other 
steadily  follows  any  given  ratio. 

This  could  be  done  bv  the  speed  tests  described  in  Experiment  No.  i,  p. 
71  ff. 

Since  each  student  started  at  zero  ability  in  typewriting,  his  gain  is  eas- 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  83 

ily  measured  by  the  average  speed  which  he  has  at  the  time  the  experi- 
ment closes.  Possibly  it  would  be  better  to  take  the  maximum  speed,  as 
explained  on  p.  71  ff. 

Of  course,  it  is  impossible  to  say  in  advance  what  the  result  will  be  and, 
therefore,  how  the  results  should  be  interpreted.  If,  however,  it  should 
be  found  that  any  one  group  is  considerably  ahead  of  the  other  groups,  we 
can  rather  safely  assume  that  the  age  of  that  group  is  a  better  time  to  be- 
gin the  study  of  typewriting  than  that  of  any  of  the  other  groups.  If 
there  is  not  very  much  ditference,  the  question  would  still  be  an  open  one 
and  could  only  be  determined  by  further  experimentation.  The  question 
may  arise  as  to  what  is  meant  by  the  word  MUCH  in  the  preceding  sen- 
tence. It  would  be  difficult  to  state  definitely,  so  that  it  would  hold  in  all 
cases,  and,  therefore,  each  experimenter  must  decide  that  for  himself. 

If  there  is  no  more  than  5%  or  10%  difference  between  any  two  of 
them,  it  would  seem  safe  to  say  that  there  is  no  dift'erence.  If  there  is 
100%  difference  between  any  two  of  them,  all  would  likely  agree  that 
there  is  an  actual  difference  in  favor  of  one  group  over  the  others. 

No  conclusions  should  be  hastily  made.  The  experiment  should  be 
tried  several  times  with  different  sets  of  pupils,  and  if  the  result  remains 
uniformly  the  same,  it  will  then  be  safe  to  assume  that  the  results  are 
valid. 

.Vfter  the  experiment  has  been  tried  by  using  the  best  pupils,  it  might  be 
tried  out  on  the  poorer  pupils,  or  on  the  mediocre  ones. 

If  it  could  be  done  on  a  sufficiently  large  scale,  it  would  be  interesting 
to  take  the  students  as  they  come,  making  no  distinction  except  to  see  that 
none  of  them  had  any  special  training  in  the  way  of  limbering  their  fin- 
gers, and  even  this  condition  might  be  waived. 

If  these  experiments  show  no  appreciable  difference,  then  the  proce- 
dure should  be  examined  carefully,  for,  on  a  priori  grounds,  it  does  not 
seem  possible  that  the  same  result  should  be  obtained  if  all  the  groups  are 
on  the  same  basis  except  as  to  age. 

e.     Details  of  Procedure. 

( I )      Instructions  and  Precautions. 

If  this  experiment  is  given  in  a  large  typewriting  room,  the  experi- 
menter may  wish  to  have  some  assistants  present.  They  should  be  handed 
a  copy  of  the  instructions.  There  are  no  special  directions,  however,  ex- 
cept that  simple  language  must  be  used  for  the  younger  pupils.  Other- 
wise, what  holds  for  the  one  group,  also  holds  for  the  others. 

None  of  the  students,  of  course,  should  have  access  to  a  typewriter  out- 


84  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

side  of  the  regular  periods  assigned  to  them,  that  is,  the  time  element  must 
be  kept  uniform. 

(2)  Time  limits. 

The  time  limits  should  be  fixed  before  the  experiment  is  undertaken,  at 
least,  tentatively.  The  beginning  date  can  be  fixed  definitely,  but  possibly 
not  so  with  the  concluding  date. 

The  time  to  be  covered  by  the  experiment  is  a  difficult  cjuestion.  Shall 
it  be  two  weeks,  which  would  be  ten  lessons ;  or  two  months,  which  would 
be  40  lessons ;  or  4  months,  which  would  be  80  lessons  ? 

In  some  schools  typewriting  is  given  twice  a  week  during  the  first  year, 
and  for  nine  months  (barring  holidays  and  vacations)  this  would  give  72 
lessons.  Two  months'  work,  then,  reciting  once  a  day,  would  be  the  equiv- 
alent of  half  a  year's  work  at  a  school  of  this  kind.  That  might  be  a  satis- 
factory period.  Of  course,  there  is  no  objection  to  making  the  experiment 
cover  a  year's  time,  if  it  can  be  done.  This  would  be  much  better,  for  72 
lessons  ought  to  bring  out  any  dififerences,  if  great  dififerences  exist  among 
the  groups. 

It  may  be  that  at  certain  stages  in  the  learning  of  the  subject,  pupils  of 
certain  ages  may  advance  more  rapidly  than  others.  From  the  practical 
viewpoint  we  are  interested  in  the  permanent  results —  which  group  will 
permanently  find  it  the  most  advantageous.  The  longer  the  experiment 
could  be  continued,  the  more  accurately  would  the  conclusion  answer  our 
question.  It  might  prove  very  illuminating,  however,  to  keep  record  of 
the  progress  at  the  different  stages.  Progress,  of  course,  would  likely  be 
interpreted  according  to  the  custom  of  the  school  in  which  this  is  being 
done.     It  might  be  rather  indefinite  and  might  need  defining. 

It  might  be  argued  that  it  is  very  essential  that  the  length  of  the  experi- 
ment be  just  right,  for,  if  the  period  is  too  long,  all,  irrespective  of  age, 
would  do  fairly  well;  and  if  it  is  too  short,  so  little  will  be  produced  that 
all  will  do  poorly.  This  holds  in  many  experiments,  but  it  does  not  appear 
to  carry  much  weight  in  the  present  one.  The  longer  this  experiment  is 
continued,  the  better,  it  would  seem,  would  be  the  conclusion,  because  we 
are  after  permanent  results,  and  if  there  is  only  a  temporary  gain  of  one 
group  over  the  others  at  an  unknown  point,  we  would  be  more  likely  to 
have  gone  beyond  it,  the  longer  we  do  the  work.  Typewriting  practice  is 
not  quite  like  drill  in  some  other  subjects.  In  typewriting  it  is  a  continuous 
drill  and  the  limit  of  efficiency  is  never  reached. 

(3)  Form,  Order  and  Method. 

No  particular  directions  are  necessary.     See  p.  58  ff. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  85 

(4)     Record,  etc. 

See  p.  59  ff. 

2.     Form. 

The  balance  of  the  outhne  apphes  uniformly  to  all  experiments  and  is 
fully  covered  on  p.  62  ft. 

a.     TYPEWRITING. 

Experiment  No.  3.     Typewriting  Norm. 

I.     FORMULATION 

I.     Introduction. 

a.     General  Statement. 

A  most  valuable  thing  for  the  typewriting  room  would  be  a  measuring 
stick,  a  scale,  a  norm,  by  which  it  would  be  possible  to  tell  whether  or  not 
any  student  of  typewriting  is  progressing  as  well  as  the  average  person 
in  his  grouix  Of  course,  a  still  better  thing  would  be  to  have  some  means 
of  determining  whether  or  not  the  student  is  progressing  as  rapidly  as  he 
should,  but  to  determine  that  takes  in  so  many  factors  which  we  are  un- 
able to  handle  at  present  (  for  instance,  his  mental  ability,  temperament, 
disposition,  perseverance,  etc.),  that  it  would  seem  wise  to  attempt  noth- 
ing more  than  to  ascertain  what  the  average  student  does  attain  at  given 
periods.  Or,  if  anv  one  objects  to  the  words  "average  student,"  let  us 
put  it  this  wa\  :  we  would  like  to  know  what  most  of  the  students  of  the 
country  are  doing.  We  could  at  least  have  the  satisfaction  of  knowing 
whether  we  were  in  their  class,  above  them,  or  below  them.  That  is.  at 
least,  more  than  we  know  now.  Even  this  would  be  a  great  help.  It  would 
be  something  objective  and  would  do  away  with  the  subjective  phase  of 
the  question.  It  would  be  another  addition  to  the  group  of  measuring 
scales  already  provided  for  several  of  the  branches,  such  as  arithmetic, 
spelling,  penmanship,  English,  modern  languages,  etc. 

We  shall  not  consider  producing  a  scale  for  measuring  what  the  pro- 
gress of  a  student  SHOULD  be.  We  shall  leave  that  to  the  future.  We 
shall  simjjly  attem])t  to  find  what  the  average  student  at  ))resent  DOES  at- 
tain. 


I 


86  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

b.  Survey  of  Experiments  Made. 

The  search  for  experiments  has  brought  to  hght  information  on  one 
that  was  being  conducted  by  Wilham  A.  Cook  at  the  University  of  Colo- 
rado. 

c.  Differentiation. 

The  plan  differs  in  the  following  respects  from  the  one  herein  proposed : 

Only  the  students  who  have  one-half  unit  or  more  credit  and  are 
present  on  the  day  of  test,  are  to  be  included. 

All  tests  are  to  be  taken  in  the  presence  of  the  Visitor. 

The  papers  are  to  contain  a  statement  of  the  periods  of  practice  al- 
ready had  by  the  writer,  but  nothing  is  said  about  the  intervals. 

The  scoring  differs  from  the  International  Typewriting  Rules  in 
that  the  penalty  is  not  uniform  for  all  errors. 

The  rules  are  not  clear  as  to  whether  the  tests  are  to  be  taken 
monthly  by  each  student  or  only  as  often  as  the  visitor  comes 
to  the  school. 

2.     Specific  Statement. 

This  experiment  is  undertaken  to  try  to  produce  a  typewriting  norm, 
that  is,  to  determine  what  progress  the  average  student  in  typewriting  does 
make  at  stated  periods. 

II.     SELECTION  OF  LABORATORY 

I.     Groups  Chosen. 

For  this  experiment  it  will  be  necessar)',  of  course,  to  take  all  grades  of 
pupils.  We  want  to  know  what  the  pupils  who  take  typewriting  are  act- 
ually doing.  We  cannot,  therefore,  pick  out  a  group  of  excellent  ones, 
and  hold  them  up,  because  that  would  be  too  high  for  the  majority  of 
pupils  to  attain.  It  would  be  far  more  satisfactory  to  take  the  pupils  as 
we  find  them  under  actual  teaching  conditions  and  ascertain  how  much 
progress  the  majority  of  them  have  made  at  the  end  of  one  month,  at  the 
end  of  two  months,  at  the  end  of  three  months,  etc.  A  month  would  seem 
to  be  a  good  dividing  point,  since  our  marks  in  school  are,  as  a  rule,  figured 
by  months.  We  could  make  a  month  actually  20  school  days,  as  is  the 
meaning  of  school  month  in  many  places. 

It  would  seem  as  though  some  differentiation  should  be  made  in  the  pu- 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  87 

pils.  Not  knowning  what  age  is  best  fitted  for  starting  the  subject  of 
typewriting,  it  would  hardly  seem  most  scientific  to  take  mixed  groups.  It 
would  be  a  good  deal  better  to  keep  separate  records  of  pupils  by  ages. 
This  would  not  necessitate  re-arranging  classes.  The  classes 
may  be  conducted  as  they  normally  would  be,  but  separate  records  should 
be  kept. 

Or,  a  record  of  the  students  should  also  be  kept  according  to  their  year 
in  high  school.  For  instance,  if  we  could  say  that  it  is  found  that  the 
average  person  beginning  typewriting  in  the  junior  year  in  high  school  at- 
tains a  speed  of  10  net  words  at  the  end  of  a  month,  it  would  be  more  defi- 
nite than  saying  that  for  pupils  beginning  typewriting  the  average  speed 
at  the  end  of  one  month  is  10  net  words,  for  the  reason  that  in  some  of 
our  high  schools  a  two  year  commercial  course  is  given,  and  typewriting 
is  given  in  the  freshman  year,  which  corresponds  to  approximately  14 
years  of  age  or  less,  while  in  some  others  where  a  four  year  course  is 
given,  the  students  do  not  begin  typewriting  until  the  junior  or  senior  year, 
which  would  be  about  16  or  17  years.  Furthermore,  some  of  the  seniors 
may  be  18  while  taking  typewriting  for  the  first  time,  and  if  it  should  be 
found  in  the  experiment  on  age,  that  there  is  very  much  variation  between 
the  18-year-old  beginner  and  the  14-year-old  beginner,  general  figures, 
without  reference  to  age,  would  not  mean  very  much.  Inasmuch  as  we  are 
still  somewhat  at  sea  in  the  matter,  it  would  seem  best  to  keep  complete 
individual  records,  each  record  to  show  the  year  in  high  school  during 
which  the  study  was  begun  and  also  the  age  of  the  student  at  the  time  of 
beginning.  When  all  the  results  are  turned  in.  it  would  be  well  to  group 
them  both  according  to  age  and  high  school  year.  We  could  then  say 
that  for  the  students  beginning  typewriting  in  their  junior  year  at  high 
school,  we  find  the  average  speed  at  the  end  of  a  month  to  be  so  many 
net  words,  and  for  the  students  beginning  typewriting  at  the  age  of  16, 
we  find  the  average  speed  at  the  end  of  a  month  to  be  so  many  net  words. 
This  would  give  us  definite  information  and  we  could  then  use  whichever 
we  find  to  be  the  most  desirable  for  our  ])urpose. 

It  might  be  that  these  figures  j^-esent  a  problem,  in  that  when  consid- 
ering the  speed  of  a  15-year-old  beginner  it  may  be  10  words,  and  when 
considering  the  sophomore  in  high  school  it  may  be  15  words.  We  may 
wish  to  ascertain  what  the  progress  of  a  certain  15-year-old  sophomore 
should  be  when  compared  with  what  is  done  over  the  country  at  large  and 
find  that  a  sophomore  should  have  a  si:»eed  of  15  words  and  that  a  15-year- 
old  boy  should  have  10  words.  Which  figures  shall  we  take?  For  the 
■decision  of  this  question  we  must  wait  until  w c  know  something  about  the 
ability  of  students  at  diiTerent  ages.     If  we  find  that  there  is  much  differ- 


88  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

ence  between  the  ages,  then  it  would  seem  better  to  use  the  scale  based  on 
ages.  If  we  find  no  difiference  in  the  ability  at  different  ages,  we  will  sim- 
ply have  to  say  that  we  have  no  scientific  means  of  knowing  which  of 
the  scales  to  take.  This,  however,  may  be  found  out  later,  and  so  it  would 
not  be  worthless  to  try  the  present  experiment.  It  would  simply  be  a 
question  of  having  two  scales  and  not  knowing  which  is  the  more  accurate 
of  the  two  for  our  purpose.  Each  would  give  this  much  satisfaction  at 
least:  we  would  know  that  according  to  the  one  basis,  certain  things  ob- 
tain, and  that  according  to  the  other  basis,  certain  other  things  actually  ob- 
tain. We  would  have  to  decide  whether  we  wished  to  use  either  of  these 
or  neither. 

Another  factor  might  enter  into  this  situation,  and  that  is  the  question 
as  to  how  often  the  subject  is  taught.  It  may  be  that  a  student  having 
had  twenty  typewriting  lessons,  taking  them  twice  a  week,  would  not  have 
the  same  speed  as  a  student  having  had  twenty  typewriting  lessons,  taking 
them  each  day  for  five  days  a  week.  This  factor  will  have  to  be  stated  in 
the  name  of  the  scale,  thus:  "Speed  in  net  words,  found  to  be  attained  by 
the  average  15-year-old  pupil  taking  typewriting  twice  a  week  during  his 
junior  year."  Of  course,  to  have  the  scales  serviceable  to  all.  we  should 
be  able  to  say  what  the  actual  finding  is  for  pupils  taking  typewriting 
twice  a  week,  three  times  a  week,  and  five  times  a  week,  and  if  there  are 
any  schools  giving  it  four  times  or  ten  times  a  week,  they  would  desire  to 
know  what  the  finding  is  for  that  number  of  recitations  a  week. 

Of  course,  still  another  factor  enters.  One  method  of  typewriting  may 
be  more  efficient  than  another,  and  that  will  make  some  students  attain  bet- 
ter results.  But  we  are  not  trying  to  decide  what  the  average  is  with  the 
best  method  known  (a  question  impossible  to  deternfine,  at  least  at  pres- 
ent) ;  all  we  are  trying  to  say  is  what  we  have  found  to  be  the  average 
speed  attained  after  having  tested  out  a  great  number  of  pupils,  and,  of 
course,  that  will  take  in  many  methods,  as  the  experiment  should  be  under- 
taken on  a  large  scale  and  should  include  a  great  many  school  systems. 

We  can  then  say,  as  we  do  with  spelling  grades,  that  the  average  for  alV 
the  cities  tested  is  so  much,  the  average  for  New  York  is  above  or  below 
that.  The  average  for  a  certain  method  which  is  taught  in,  say,  one  or 
two  schools  in  New  York  is  so  much.  The  average  for  the  classes  taught 
by  such  and  such  a  teacher  is  either  above  or  below  this  line. 

2.     Schools  Chosen. 

a.     General  Character  of  Student-Rody. 

A  great  manv  schools  should  be  chosen  for  this  experiment  and  they 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  89 

■shnuld  be  schools  from  a  great  many  cities — the  more  the  better — because 
we  w  ant  to  find  what  is  actually  being  done  today  iu  the  representative  or 
the  larger  schools  of  the  country  where  we  can  assume  that  the  teachinj^ 
15  being  done  intelligently.  Of  course,  this  will  include  all  sorts  and  con- 
ditions of  students,  good  ones,  mediocre  ones,  and  poor  ones.  It  will  in- 
clude those  who  have  had  their  fingers  limbered  up  before  taking  up  the 
subject,  and  those  who  have  not.  It  will  include  those  who  do  only  as 
much  work  as  called  for  in  the  class  room,  and  those  who  do  extra  work. 
We  are  not  trying  to  ditferentiate  here.  We  are  simply  trying  to  ascertain 
what  is  actuall}-  being  done  under  the  ordinary  conditions  that  now  exist. 

b.  Accessibility. 

All  the  schools  tested  need  not  be  accessible  personally  to  the  experi- 
menter. He  would  not  even  need  to  visit  them.  All  that  would  be  neces- 
sary is  to  have  clearly  formulated  instructions  and  be  assured  that  the 
teachers  who  are  to  carry  out  the  instructions  understand  them  and  are 
in  sympathy  with  the  idea,  so  that  they  give  reports  of  actual  conditions 
-and  do  not  color  them  either  favorably  or  unfavorably. 

c.  Co-operation. 

There  must,  of  course,  be  co-operation  on  the  part  of  all  concerned,  as 
explained  on  ]>.  38  ff.,  so  as  to  get  accurate  results. 

3.     Teachers  Chosen. 

This  would  really  be  more  of  a  survey  than  an  experiment  in  the  nar- 
rower sense  of  the  word,  and  so  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  make  any 
change  in  the  teaching  staff.  We  want  to  know  what  the  teachers  are 
actually  doing,  and  not  what  they  would  do  under  any  special  system  of 
instruction.  We  would  want  to  be  sure,  though,  that  the  person  who  is 
obtaining  the  information  for  us  is  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  idea  in 
mind  and  is  in  sympathy  with  it,  and  is  professional  and  scientific  enough 
to  see  that  the  tests  are  proj^erly  given  and  that  the  records  are  correctly 
made,  so  that  they  will  actually  show  conditions  existing,  uncolored  by  any 
personal  views  or  wishes. 

Even  if  the  actual  teacher  of  the  class  is  antagonistic  to  the  idea,  if  the 
experimenter  sees  that  the  tests  are  properly  given  and  she  does  not  influ- 
ence the  students  to  be  abnormal  at  the  time,  her  antagonism  can  hardly 
invalidate  the  result  of  the  whole  experiment. 


90  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

III.     CHOICE  OF  CONDUCTOR 

By  the  preceding  page  it  is  decided  that  the  regular  teacher  will  conduct 
the  experiment.     See  also  p.  44  fif. 

IV.     DEVELOPMENT  OF  PROCEDURE 

I.     Content. 

a.  Difficulties. 

(  I )      No  preliminary  nor  equalization  test  is  necessary. 

(2)  Personal  preliminary  conferences  will  not  be  necessary.  The  in- 
structions are  simple  and  could  be  written  out  so  that  no  teacher  would 
have  any  trouble  in  following  them.  They  could  be  sent  to  the  various 
schools  by  mail. 

(3)  Any  other  difficulties. 

To  carry  out  this  experiment  it  will  first  be  necessary  to  find  a  number 
of  schools  with  typewriting  students  aggregating  a  thousand  or  more  (the 
more  the  better)  who  would  be  willing  to  assist  in  getting  the  necessary 
data. 

After  having  found  the  schools,  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  sure  that 
some  one  in  each  of  these  schools  will  make  himself  or  herself  responsible 
for  carrying  out  the  instructions  properly.  In  the  larger  school  systems,  it 
is  likely  to  be  the  head  of  the  department  or  the  supervisor.  In  the  small- 
er schools  it  would  likely  be  the  principal  or  the  teacher  herself. 

The  instructions  as  to  how  the  experiment  is  to  be  carried  on  should  be 
written  out  in  full  detail  and  copies  should  be  in  the  hands  of  the  teachers. 
The  experimenter  should  be  very  careful  to  have  the  instructions  so  clear 
and  complete  that  there  will  be  no  misunderstanding  about  them. 

b.  Time. 

The  experiment  should  start  at  the  beginning  of  the  school  year— Sep- 
tember, in  most  cases — and  it  should  include  all  the  students  taking  type- 
writing, both  the  beginners  and  the  advanced  students.  In  reporting  the 
advanced  students,  the  details  should  show  how  old  they  are  at  present,, 
in  what  class  and  how  often  they  are  taking  typewriting  during  the  week. 
It  should  also  show  data  on  their  past  typewriting  performance,  such  as 
how  many  years  they  have  been  typewriting,  in  what  class  of  the  high 
school  they  began  the  subject,  their  age  at  that  time,  how  many  times  a 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  91 

week  they  took  the  subject,  and  how  many  weeks  in  the  school  year.    The 
length  of  the  periods  should  also  be  mentioned. 

c.  Periods. 

It  might  also  be  well  just  for  the  sake  of  making  individual  compari- 
sons, to  state  at  what  time  of  the  day  the  recitation  took  place  and  what 
immediately  preceded  it.  Of  course,  the  tests  will  take  place  during  the 
regular  typewriting  periods. 

d.  Subject-matter. 

The  subject-matter  will  be  the  regular  typewriting  instruction  given  in 
that  particular  school  for  that  particular  class.  We  are  trying  to  find  out 
what  the  average  is  for  all  the  systems  and  schools  and  methods.  It  can 
be  assumed,  however,  that  touch  typewriting  is  being  taught.  Mention 
should  be  made  if  it  is  not  the  method. 

Next  we  come  to  the  more  difficult  part  of  the  experiment,  and  that  is 
the  testing. 

This,  it  would  seem,  should  take  i)lace  at  the  end  of  every  20  school 
days,  or  a  school  month.  That  is  a  convenient  reckoning  period  in  our 
present  practice,  and  would  therefore  afiford  a  basis  for  the  month's 
marks  and  be  ])ractical  in  tliis  respect. 

The  tests  should  be  conducted  in  the  manner  described  for  the  prelimi- 
nary and  final  tests  in  the  first  experiment  of  this  thesis,  p.  71  iT,  using 
the  International  Typewriting  Contest  Rules. 

The  same  Qopy  matter  should  be  used  by  all  students  and  for  each 
monthly  test.  Care  should  be  used  that  the  student  does  not  have  access 
to  it  in  the  interim. 

A  slight  exception  might  be  made  in  the  case  of  beginners.  Students 
who  are  taking  typewriting  twice  a  week  will  not  have  progressed  very 
far  at  the  end  of  the  first  month.  According  to  some  methods  of  instruc- 
tion they  will  not  have  had  capital  letters  nor  punctuation  marks.  For 
these,  a  slight  variation  nnght  be  made  in  this  respect :  Expect  of  them 
only  what  they  have  been  taught.  That  is,  if  they  have  not  had  capital 
letters,  allow  them  to  use  the  small  letters  in  ])lace  of  the  capitals  when- 
ever the  capitals  are  called  for  on  the  copy,  and  if  they  have  not  had  punc- 
tuation marks,  permit  them  to  omit  those  called  for  in  the  copy.  Another 
suggestion  might  be  in  order.  If  the  beginning  students  have  not  had  any 
practice  in  sentence  writing,  that  is,  if  they  have  only  been  practicing  iso- 
lated words,  they  should,  before  taking  the  test,  write  for  say  10  or  15 


92  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

minutes  from  copy  in  which  continuous  sentences  are  given,  so  that  they 
may  become  accustomed  to  sentence  work. 

The  question  arises,  "How  many  tests  should  be  given  at  the  end  of  each 
month,  one  test,  or  several  as  recommended  in  the  other  experiment?" 

It  will  take  a  great  deal  of  time  to  give  three  tests  at  the  end  of  each 
month.  Furthermore,  it  will  interfere  a  great  deal  with  the  teaching  pro- 
cess which  we  are  testing.  Our  results  will  then  have  a  disturbing  ele- 
ment in  them  of  sufficient  proportions  to  be  considerable  and  therefore, 
will  not  properly  measure  the  students  who  are  doing  the  regular  work, 
which  is  what  we  want  to  test. 

Furthermore,  in  the  previous  experiment  we  were  not  figuring  on  such 
a  large  number  of  students  in  the  test,  and  the  possibility  for  individual 
variation  was  much  greater.  In  this  experiment  it  is  not  likely  that  all 
of  the  students  will  have  an  off-day  each  time  a  test  comes  along,  when  it 
comes  regularly  once  a  month,  and  other  subjective  factors  will  not  play 
so  large  a  role. 

Then  again,  in  the  other  experiment  we  wanted  one  figure  at  the  be- 
ginning and  one  figure  at  the  end  of  the  experiment,  to  show  the  pupil's 
ability.  Here  we  have  a  record  every  month  over  the  whole  year's  work 
for  the  same  student.  Even  in  the  individual  record,  one  off-day  would 
likely  be  balanced  by  the  next  record,  and  so  on.  Progress  should 
be  shown  by  the  succession  of  records  made  by  each  student.  Hence, 
it  would  appear  that  one  test  at  the  end  of  the  month  is  sufhcient, 
for  the  subjective  factor  is  taken  care  of  through  our  largely  increased 
number  of  tests,  as  well  as  the  number  of  students.  ]More  tests  than  one 
a  month,  would  interefere  with  the  very  thing  we  are  testing  and  so  much 
time  could  not  be  taken  out  of  the  regular  work. 

The  matter  of  marking  so  many  papers  would  also  be  a  serious  proposi- 
tion, and  it  would  seem  that  the  added  work  would  not  justify  the  dif- 
ference in  the  results. 

It  is  suggested  that  each  pupil  mark  his  own  work,  while  the  teacher 
reads  the  copy  aloud.    Then,  have  the  papers  exchanged  with  a  neighbor, 

and  have  the  neighbor  write  on  the  paper,  "Checked  by ,"  and  sign 

his  own  name.  The  teacher  will  again  read  the  copy  aloud,  while  the  stu- 
dents mark  the  papers.     The  papers  will  be  exchanged  once  more,  and 

marked  :   "Rechecked  by ,"  the  student  again  signing  his  own  name. 

This  should  insure  a  very  accurate  record  of  the  work  and  save  much 
time  in  marking.  This  method  is  suggested  in  Cody's  Commercial  Tests 
and  How  to  Give  Them. 

Along  with  the  record  of  each  test  should  go  the  following  information 


IN  CO]MMERClAL  EDUCATION  ■  95 

for  each  class,  so  that  if  any  considerable  variation  is  noticed  in  one  set  of 
papers,  we  may  be  able  to  look  intelligently  for  the  cause : 

Time  of  day  the  test  was  given. 

^^'hat  the  students  did  in  the  periods  immediately  preceding. 

Temperature  of  the  room. 

Atmosphere,  i.  e.,  humid,  close,  etc. 

Kind  of  day,  i.  e.,  bright,  pleasant,  dull,  rainy,  etc. 

There  should  also  be  noted  any  unusual  disturbing  elements,  such  as  fire 
drill,  unlooked-for  accident,  etc.,  which  would  disturb  the  class  in 
the  test. 

After  all  this  information  has  been  collected  at.  the  end  of  the  year,  it 
would  require  a  considerable  force  to  tabulate  it.     It  would  be  better  to 
collect  the  material  each  month  and  work  on  it  as  it  comes  in.     Care,  of 
course,  should  be  used  to  make  the  recoi-ds  accurate. 
The  data  should  be  arranged  as  follows : 
Keep  the  record  for  each  class  separate. 
Group  the  classes  of  each  school. 
Group  the  schools  of  one  city. 
Group  the  cities. 

A\'e  want  the  above  arrangement  according  to  averages. 
Grou])  the  papers  in  the  way  mentioned  above,  and  from  these  groups 
tabulate  the  following  information : 

13-year-old  pupils  beginning  typewriting: 

List  A.    Those  taking  typewriting  twice  a  week. 
List  B.     Those  taking  typewriting  3  times  a  week. 
List  C.     Those  taking  typewriting  4  times  a  week. 
List  D.    Those  taking  typewriting  5  times  a  week. 
List  E.     Those  taking  typewriting  more  than  5  times  a  week,  with 
a  footnote  showing  how  often. 

Re-group  these  according  to  the  13-year-old  pupils  taking  it  in  the 
Freshman  year,  Sophomore  year,  Junior  year.  Senior  year,  in 
high  school. 


'te' 


Make  the  same  kind  of  a  record  for  the  14-year-old  pupils  begin- 
ning typewriting. 

Ditto  for  the  15,  16,  17,  and  18-year-olds. 

Then  we  should  make  a  table  showing: 

14-year-old  pupils  taking  the  second  year  of  typewriting. 


94  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

Giving  as  preliminary  information  what  they  had  the  previous  year, 
i.  e.,  the  number  of  periods  altogether,  whether  they  came 
twice,  three  times,  etc.,  a  week. 

List  F.     Those  taking  it  twice  a  week. 
List  G.     Those  taking  it  3  times  a  week. 
List  H.    Those  taking  it  4  times  a  week. 
List  L     Those  taking  it  5  times  a  week. 

List  J.  Those  taking  it  more  than  5  times  a  week,  noting  how 
often. 

Re-group  these  according  to  the  14-year-old  pupils  taking  it  in  the 
Sophomore  year,  Junior  year.  Senior  year,  of  high  school. 

Make  the  same  record  for  the  15-year-old  pupils  taking  the  second 
year  of  typewriting. 

Ditto  for  16,  17,  and  18-year-olds,  taking  the  second  year  of  type- 
writing. 

Then  in  a  similar  way  take  the  15-year-old  pupils  taking  the  3rd  year  of 
typewriting,  etc. 

Then  the  16-year-old  pupils  taking  the  4th  year  of  typewriting,  etc. 
This  data  should  also  be  arranged  in  the  following  manner : 
Speed  of  the  students  at  the  periods  mentioned  below  : 

.    Schedule  for  the  students  taking  the  work  twice  a  week : 

At  the  end  of  8  lessons. 
At  the  end  of  16  lessons, 
At  the  end  of  24  lessons. 
At  the  end  of  t,2  lessons,  etc. 

!  .Schedule  for  the  students  taking  the  work  three  times  a  week: 

At  the  end  of  12  lessons. 
At  the  end  of  24  lessons. 
At  the  end  of  36  lessons, 
f  A-t  the  end  of  48  lessons,  etc. 

Schedule  for  those  taking  it  4  times  a  week: 

At  the  end  of  16  lessons. 
At  the  end  of  32  lessons. 
At  the  end  of  48  lessons,  etc. 

Schedule  for  those  taking  it  5  times  a  week : 

At  the  end  of  20  lessons. 
At  the  end  of  40  lessons. 
At  the  end  of  60  lessons,  etc. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  95 

Schedule  for  those  taking  it  more  than  5  times  a  week: 

At  the  end  of  lessons,  etc. 

It  would  also  be  profitable  to  have  the  data  in  the  following  form,  if  we 
find  that  many  schools  follow  this  arrangement  of  hours : 

Schedule  for  those  taking  it  twice  a  week  during  the  first  year,  3 
times  during  the  second  year,  and  5  times  during  the  3rd  year. 

At  the  end  of      8  lessons till    80  lessons. 

At  the  end  of    92  lessons .till  200  lessons. 

At  the  end  of  220  lessons till  400  lessons. 

Also: 

Schedule  for  those  taking  it  five  times  during  the  first  year  and  five 
times  during  the  second  year : 

At  the  end  of    20  lessons till  200  lessons. 

At  the  end  of  220  lessons till  400  lessons. 

In  this  way  a  school  could  readily  find  at  any  time,  the  status  of  the 
schools  running  the  same  schedule  as  its  own. 

(e)      Details  of  Procedure. 
(1  )      Instructions. 

Since  this  experiment  covers  a  wide  territory,  it  will  be  necessary  for 
the  experimenter  to  make  most  of  the  arrangements  by  mails,  and  there- 
fore the  instructions  should  be  carefully  written  up  so  that  there  will  be 
no  misunderstanding  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  conducting  the  work. 

It  might  be  well,  in  sending  out  the  instructions,  to  state  that,  if  the 
matter  is  not  clearly  understood,  the  question  should  be  raised  on  the 
points  that  are  not  clear.  The  instructions  should  be  put  into  the  hands 
of  the  teachers  so  that  they  will  be  available  for  the  beginning  of  the 
school  year. 

(2)  It  should  be  stated  that  the  test  is  to  be  given  at  the  end  of  each 
school  month  for  a  year  and  it  should  take  place  during  the  regular  type- 
writing period. 

(3)  There  are  no  instructions  to  be  given  to  the  class,  and  therefore 
we  need  not  concern  ourselves  with  this  part  of  the  outline.  If  the  class 
is  not  familiar  with  the  marking  system  used  in  the  International  Type- 
writing Contests,  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  explain  it  to  the 


96  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

students.    That  will  in  no  way  affect  the  experiment  itself,  however.     She 
can  make  that  explanation  in  her  own  words. 

(4)  If  anything  occurs  to  interrupt  the  test,  a  note  of  it  should  be 
made  in  full  detail.     See  p.  59  ft". 

(2)      Form. 

The  balance  of  the  outline  applies  uniformly  to  all  experiments  and  is 
covered  fully  on  p.  62  ff. 

a.     TYPEWRITING. 

Experiment  No.  4.     Should  A\'e  Teach  the  Touch  Method  or  the  Sight 
Method  of  Typewriting  in  Our  Schools? 

I.     FORMULATION. 
I.     Introduction. 

a.     General  Statement. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  whether  or  not  an  experiment  on  this  question  is 
justified.  The  investigator  had  thought  it  was  universally  granted  that 
the  touch  method  is  superior  to  the  sight  method  of  typewriting,  which  be- 
ing the  case,  there  is  not  much  use  in  trying  to  prove  something  on  which 
everybody  is  agreed,  especially  since  there  are  so  many  other  things  on 
which  people  are  not  agreed,  which  need  attention.  Not  that  common 
opinion  is  always  right  and  that  it  is  not  worth  while  testing  out  those 
things  to  see  whether  they  are  scientifically  founded,  but  a  matter  of  this 
kind  could  rest  a  while  with  less  loss,  apparently,  than  some  other  matters  ; 
and,  furthermore,  the  proof  appears  to  be  so  self-evident. 

However,  it  is  found  that  there  are  still  some  business  schools  advertis- 
ing in  their  catalogues,  that  they  teach  both  the  touch  and  the  sight  sys- 
tems. If  it  is  still  an  open  question,  possibly  it  would  not  be  energy  wasted 
to  prove  it  scientifically. 

The  point  at  issue  is  this  :  according  to  the  one  method  the  student  looks 
at  his  fingers  while  he  is  writing  and  according  to  the  other  he  does  not 
- — under  the  sight  method  the  typist  watches  his  fingers  while  he  writes 
and  under  the  touch  method  he  does  not  watch  his  fingers  while  he  is 
writing  but  keeps  his  eyes  on  the  book  or  paper  from  which  he  is  copying. 

Teachers  in  the  typewriting  room  have  put  it  this  way  to  their  begin- 
ning pupils : 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  97 

"Now,  under  the  old  sight  method  you  would  look  at  yoiu-  hook  and 
read  a  few  words.  Then  you  would  write  those  words  and  watch  your 
fingers  to  see  that  you  struck  the  correct  keys.  Then  you  would  look  at 
your  book  again,  hunt  the  place,  read  a  few  words,  and  then  write  them  ; 
and  so  on.  ( The  teacher  would  demonstrate  while  she  explained. )  P>ut 
under  the  new  method,  the  touch  method,  you  kee})  your  eyes  right  on 
your  book  and  keep  writing  at  the  same  time,  like  this.  (Then  the  teacher 
would  demonstrate.)  Onl\'  when  you  reach  the  end  of  a  line  and  have  to 
bring  your  carriage  over,  do  you  have  to  look  at  your  fingers,'  and  then 
only  to  see  that  your  fingers  are  back  in  the  proper  place,  that  is,  on  the 
position  keys.  After  a  while  you  won't  even  have  to  do  that.  In  this  way 
you  save  a  great  deal  of  time  that  would  be  lost  in  looking  on  and  ofif,  as 
you  would  have  to  do  with  the  sight  method.  Speed  is  the  thing  we  are 
after,  and  if  you  can  be  writing  while  the  other  fellow  is  looking  ofif  and  on 
and  hunting  his  place,  you  will  be  able  to  write  just  so  many  more  words, 
and  that  will  increase  your  speed.  That  is  why  we  want  yoti  to  learn  the 
touch  method." 

Someone  occasionally  objects  and  says,  "Don't  you  get  used  to  hunting 
your  place  and  can't  you  find  it  quickly  after  a  while  ?"  "Yes,"  the  teacher 
will  answer,  "you  can  find  it  somewhat  quicker  after  a  great  deal  of  prac- 
tice, but  even  then,  you  lose  time  because  yoti  stop  typewriting  while  you 
read  what  you  are  going  to  write  next." 

The  argument  is  so  evident  that  a  person  wonders  why  the  sight  method 
is  taught  at  all,  and  one  difficulty  in  conducting  this  experiment  would  be 
the  apparent  unfairness  to  the  section  that  is  taking  sight  typewriting,  for 
it  is  almost  universally  agreed  ( it  is  believed  this  can  be  said  without  fear 
of  being  contradicted)  that  the  touch  system  is  by  far  the  better.  It 
might  be  difficult  to  find  a  school  system  that  would  be  willing  to  permit 
the  experiment  to  be  tried,  becatise  from  the  outset  it  aj)pears  that  one 
section  would  be  at  a  great  disadvantage  over  the  other. 

In  most  experiments  we  simply  do  not  know  which  of  several  ways  is 
the  best,  and  it  is  a  sense  of  satisfaction  to  a  school  system  to  know  for 
itself  which  is  the  best,  so  that  it  can  be  guided  accordingly  in  the  future, 
but  where  a  system  takes  the  stand  that  touch  typewriting  is  far  superior 
to  sight  typewriting,  it  would  be  hard  to  get  permission  to  conduct  the  ex- 
periment. But  those  schools  \\  hich  advertise  in  the  way  mentioned  above, 
would  seem  to  be  the  places  to  perform  the  experiment,  for  they  evidently 
are  not  absolutely  prejudiced  in  favor  of  touch  tyi)ewriting. 

b.     Survey  of  Experiment  ]\Iade,  and  Differentiation. 

C.  G.  Bradford  reports  "An  Experiment  in  Typewriting"  in  the  "Peda- 


98  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

gogical  Seminar,"  December  1914,  Vol.  XXII,  pp.  445-468,  in  which  some 
data  on  Touch  and  Sight  Methods  is  given,  but  the  experiment  does  not 
have  for  its  aim  a  verdict  on  the  question  of  Sight  vs.  Touch.  In  all,  four 
typists  were  involved  and  two  of  them  took  the  Sight  Method  at  first  and 
then  the  Touch  Method,  which  brings  a  disturbing  factor  into  the  situa- 
tion. 

William  Frederick  Book  made  a  study  of  typewriting,  "The  Psychology 
of  Skill  with  Special  Reference  to  Its  Acquisition  in  Typewriting,"  Uni- 
versity of  Montana  Publications. 

For  this  experiment  two  of  the  subjects  used  the  Sight  Method  and 
two  used  the  Touch  Method. 

He  has  made  a  very  minute  analysis  of  learning  to  write  by  Sight  and 
by  Touch.  His  evidence  (which  is  in  favor  of  touch  typewriting)  is  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  learning  process ;  the  experiment  under  considera- 
tion seeks  evidence  from  the  standpoint  of  the  results  obtained,  and  is  to 
be  worked  out  on  a  much  larger  number  of  pupils. 

d.     Specific  Statement. 
This    experiment    is   undertaken   to    try    to    determine    (scientifically) 
whether  we  should  teach  the  Touch  or  Sight  ]\Iethod  of  typewriting  in 
our  schools. 

II.     SELECTION  OF  LABORATORY 

1.  Groups  Chosen. 

The  pupils  selected  for  this  experiment  should  be  beginners  in  type- 
writing, it  matters  not  whether  they  are  in  the  junior  high  school,  in  the 
regular  high  school,  or  in  a  business  school. 

They  should  be  beginners  because  at  the  beginning  is  the  place  to  decide 
whether  they  will  be  sight  or  touch  operators. 

They  should  be  of  all  grades  and  classes,  because  one  method  may  pos- 
sibly afifect  younger  students  different  from  older  students  and  if  it  does, 
we  want  to  know  it.  If  it  does  not,  as  scientific  investigators,  we  want  to 
know  that  too. 

There  should  be  two  sections,  one  using  the  Sight  Method  and  one  using 
the  Touch  Method. 

2.  Schools  Chosen. 

In  this  experiment  it  is  our  desire  to  know  how  the  methods  work  under 
all  conditions  and  therefore,  we  can  take  matters  largely  as  we  find  them 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  99 

and  do  not  have  to  select  certain  schools  because  the  character  of  their 
student  body  is  ideal  or  high,  or  because  the  children  of  the  school  come 
from  high  type  American  homes,  etc. 

Of  course,  the  school  should  be  accessible  to  the  experimenter  so  that  he 
may  observe  the  conditions  and  see  that  the  experiment  is  properly  under- 
stood by  the  teachers  and  properly  carried  out.  See  complete  reference  to 
this  on  p.  36  fif. 

b.     Co-oi)eration. 

There  is  very  little  use  in  conducting  any  experiment  in  a  school  where 
the  experimenter  does  not  have  the  co-operation  of  all  concerned.  See  p. 
38  ff.  relative  to  co-operation. 

Because  of  the  apparent  one-sidedness  of  the  cjuestion,  we  may  have 
difficulty  in  obtaining  the  necessary  co-operation.  The  student  should  be 
given  the  choice  as  to  the  method.  If  forced  into  the  section  he  does  not 
want,  he  may  not  co-operate. 

3.     Teachers  Chosen. 

The  teacher  chosen  should  meet  the  conditions  set  forth  on  p.  41  IT. 

\\'e  may  have  to  look  largely  to  the  business  schools  for  the  working  out 
of  the  question  in  hand,  and  we  may  find  difficulty  in  obtaining  teachers 
who  have  the  scientific  attitude,  as  many  such  teachers  have  had  no  nor- 
mal training. 

d.     Any  Other  Reasons. 

The  same  teacher  should  be  in  charge  of  both  groups,  because  otherwise 
another  factor  might  enter  into  the  experiment  in  the  way  of  the  person- 
ality of  the  teachers. 

One  dilificulty  in  connection  with  this  experiment  may  be  in  getting  a 
teacher  who  can  teach  both  methods  without  [)rejudice. 

But  the  schools  which  advertise  both  the  sight  and  the  touch  method, 
would  seem  to  be  the  ])lace  to  go  for  helj)  in  this  direction,  for  they  are 
evidently  not  absolutely  prejudiced  in  favor  of  touch  typewriting.  We 
would  try  first,  of  course,  to  get  a  teacher  who  could  undertake  to  teach 
both  methods,  but  if  this  could  not  be  done  (both  sections  meeting  at  the 
same  period,  for  instance,  etc.),  then  it  will  be  necessary  to  get  two  teach- 
ers as  nearly  alike  as  possible — whose  personalities  have  about  the  same 
efTect  upon  the  ])upils,  that  is,  two  with  whom  the  pupils  will  co-operate  to 


loo  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

very  nearly  the  same  degree  (specify  in  the  report  which  has  the  greater 
and  which  the  lesser  co-operation,  if  any),  and  whose  personalities  have 
just  about  the  same  amount  of  force  in  putting  things  over  to  the  pupils. 
If  it  is  hard  to  decide  that  any  two  teachers  available  are  alike  or  nearly 
alike,  the  experiment  cannot  be  expected  to  give  valid  results  and  it  would 
not  be  expedient  to  try  it  because  this  factor  is  an  important  one. 

However,  the  schools  in  question  are  business  schools  and  in  such 
schools  the  students  are  usuall\-  taught  individually  (not  by  classes),  as 
the  pupils  enter  at  any  time  during  the  year.  This  would  make  it  impossi- 
ble to  conduct  the  experiment  in  classes.  If  it  were  going  to  be  done  in 
these  schools,  it  would  have  to  be  done  individually,  which,  while  not  ab- 
solutely impossible,  requires  more  work  and  care.  The  teacher  would  have 
to  be  sure  that  the  instruction  given  to  each  individual  was  the  same  as  that 
given  to  others,  in  effect  at  least.  She  would  have  to  be  on  guard  continual- 
ly. Special  care  would  have  to  be  taken  to  see  that  the  records  of  each  pupil 
are  taken  at  the  proper  date,  that  is,  the  tests  given  at  the  proper  time,  so 
that  one  pupil  will  not  have  had  a  longer  period  for  the  same  test  than  an- 
other. She  should  have  a  standard  individual  record  for  each  student,  so 
that  nothing  will  be  overlooked. 

In  the  subject  of  typewriting,  however,  the  teacher  does  not  enter  into 
the  matter  so  largely  in  some  schools  as  she  does  in  most  subjects.  Some 
text  books  in  typewriting  are  so  arranged  that  the  student  is  merely  start- 
ed by  the  teacher  and  then  seeks  his  own  salvation,  and  this  kind  is  very 
often  used  in  business  schools,  because  of  the  individual  method  of  in- 
struction. If  the  experiment  is  tried  in  a  school  where  this  type  of  text 
book  is  used,  we  would  not  have  to  put  so  nuich  consideration  on  the 
choice  of  a  teacher  to  conduct  the  experiment,  because  it  would  largely 
depend  upon  the  i)upil  himself.  We  would  have  to  ascertain  just  how 
much  attention  is  given  by  the  teacher  and  be  sure  that  when  it  is  given, 
it  is  of  the  right  kind  for  the  purpose  of  the  experiment  in  mind.  A  full 
statement  of  this  in  great  detail  should  be  made  in  the  report. 

III.     CHOICE  OF  CONDUCTOR 

1.  The  best  person  to  conduct  this  experiment  would  be  the  regular 
teacher  of  the  class.  But  inasmuch  as  the  students  have  not  become  ac- 
customed to  any  teacher  in  this  subject,  some  other  person,  who  had 
the  necessary  qualifications,  could  do  it.  See  the  consideration  of  this  sub- 
ject on  p.  44  ff. 

2.  Agent  selected.  If  the  regular  teacher  is  not  ideal  for  any  reasons, 
then  we  shall  have  to  choose  the  next  best  person  available.     If  the  only 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  loi 

person  available  falls  short  of  our  requirements  by  any  considerable 
amount,  we  shall  have  to  postpone  the  experiment  until  we  can  get  the 
proper  person. 

IV.     DEVELOPMENT  OF  A   I'ROCEDURE 

I.     Content. 

a.     Difficulties. 

(i)     EQUALIZATION  TEST. 

It  is  a  very  difficult  matter  to  equalize  sections  of  a  jirospective  class  of 
typewriting  students.  All  we  can  do  at  present  is  to  exclude  from  an  ex- 
periment those  students  who  we  believe  have  ai;  advantage  at  the  start 
through  possessing  pliable  fingers  as  the  result  of  piano  or  violin  playing. 

Aside  from  this  we  are  not  able  to  isolate  any  of  the  factors  that  con- 
stitute typewriting  ability.  Considerable  experimenting  will  be  necessary 
before  we  can  accomplish  this,  and,  in  the  meanwhile,  our  experiments 
with  other  phases  of  typewriting  must  be  conducted  on  a  sufficiently  large 
scale  to  eliminate  what  unknown  inequalities  exist. 

FINAL  TESTS. 

Tests  are  to  be  sriven 


tn  ' 


immediately  before  the  shift  key  is  used, 
after  it  has  been  mastered, 
one  month  after  beginning  typewriting,  and 
each  month  thereafter. 

The  first  three  tests  will  act  as  a  check  on  ottr  equalization. 

It  is  not  expected  that  any  considerable  difference  will  appear  before 
the  first  month. 

We  have  assumed  that  each  student  started  with  zero  typewriting  abil- 
ity. The  number  of  net  words  written  per  minute  in  the  tests  will  there- 
fore show  his  progress  and  will  be  the  basis  of  comparing  the  sections. 

International  Typewriting  Contest  material  and  Rules  will  be  used  in 
these  tests.  See  page  i  ff.  for  details.  Capitalization  and  punctuation 
vi'ould  have  to  be  ignored  uniil  the  student  karns  lu)w  to  do  this  work. 

After  the  students  go  out  into  business,  they  should  be  tested  each  year 
•or  half  year,  if  it  is  possible  to  get  them  back  to  the  school  for  the  test. 


r       t 
r         r    r     •    ,<     »       ' 


%        <      < 


102  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

The  point  at  issue  may  have  been  proved  conchisively  to  the  students  long 
before  this  and  the  one  set  may  have  refused  to  continue  their  method. 
If  it  does  run  into  years,  the  amount  of  practice  a  student  has  had  in 
business  in  the  course  of  the  year  should  be  calculated  as  nearly  as  possi- 
ble and  this  taken  into  consideration  in  the  result.  We  would  expect  a 
difference  between  the  student  who  worked  at  the  machine  all  day  and  the 
one  who  worked  only  half  a  day.  Minutes  and  seconds  would  not  be  con- 
sidered when  we  are  talking  of  years  of  experience  in  typewriting. 

(2)  Preliminary  Conferences. 

Inasmuch  as  the  details  of  this  experiment  are  not  difficult  to  under- 
stand, it  will  not  be  necessary  to  hold  any  preliminary  conferences.  The 
procedure  can  be  easily  understood  from  the  written  instructions. 

(3)  Any  other  Difficulties. 

It  will  be  difficult  to  keep  the  pupils  from  doing  extra  typewriting,  that 
is,  from  doing  it  outside  of  the  regular  period.  The  teacher  will  have  to 
handle  the  situation  very  tactfully.  It  may  even  be  necessary,  in  order  to 
keep  the  co-operation  of  the  pupils,  to  tell  them  that  they  will  receive  no 
mark  on  what  they  do  outside,  but  only  on  what  they  do  in  the  class  room, 
and  that  the  basis  for  marking  will  be,  not  the  amount  of  work  they  cover 
but  how  well  they  do  the  work  in  that  period  and  how  carefully  they  fol- 
low instructions.  It  would  be  very  difficult  to  keep  students  from  doing 
any  extra  typewriting  for  a  whole  year,  if  the  students  are  like  those  of 
West  Chester,  Pa.,  for  whom  six  weeks  was  too  long  a  period. 

Another  difficulty  may  be  that  if  the  results  show  up  so  much  more  fav- 
orably in  one  section  than  the  other,  it  may  become  apparent  to  the  stu- 
dents themselves  and  it  may  be  difficult  to  hold  the  other  section  to  its 
plan.  It  may  be  argued  that  this  would  be  proof  in  itself.  It  might  not  be^ 
because  sometimes  there  is  a  zone  w'here  one  method  (and  usually  the 
poorer  one)  keeps  ahead  of  the  other  for  just  a  little  while,  and  after  a 
certain  point  is  passed,  the  other  makes  rapid,  permanently-advanced 
strides,  and  the  only  way  to  tell  is  by  keeping  the  experiment  going  long 
enough. 

b.     TIME. 

The  date  for  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  should  be  definitely  set. 
It  must  be,  by  the  nature  of  things,  at  the  time  typewriting  is  begun.     If 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  103 

the  subject  is  conducted  by  class  instruction,  the  time  will  likely  be  Sep- 
tember or  February.  If  it  is  taught  by  the  individual  method,  of  course, 
it  will  take  place  whenever  a  student  is  ready  for  the  work. 

A  test  should  take  place  just  before  the  students  are  ready  to  use  the 
shift  key,  another  after  they  have  mastered  it,  and  a  test  regularly  each 
month  counting  from  the  day  the  student  begins  typewriting. 

\\'ith  the  individual  method  we  must  be  certain  to  keep  an  accurate  rec- 
ord of  dates.  The  test  immediately  preceding  the  use  of  the  shift  key  and 
the  one  after  mastering  it,  will  not  come  at  the  same  time  for  each  student 
by  this  method,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  way  of  controlling  it.  This  will 
not  be  an  important  item,  however,  because  his  other  tests  will  come  at 
monthly  periods,  dating  from  the  time  he  begins  typewriting.  Most  im- 
portance will  be  attached  to  the  monthly  tests. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  decide  how  often  the  subject  will  be  given  and 
on  what  days  of  the  week. 

c.  PERIODS. 

Both  sections  should  meet,  if  possible,  at  similar  periods  of  the  day. 
This  can  easily  be  done  when  the  class  recites  only  twice  a  week,  or  if  the 
room  is  large  enough  to  accommodate  both  sections  at  one  time. 

d.  SUBJECT-MATTER. 

The  subject-matter  is  to  be  the  regular  typewriting  lessons  of  the  school 
where  the  experiment  is  given.  It  is  regular  work  we  are  testing  out  by 
two  different  methods.  The  w^ork  should  be  the  same  in  both  sections  and 
any  text  can  be  used. 

The  text  used  should  be  mentioned  in  the  report.  It  would  be  well  to 
state  how^  much  of  the  text  had  been  covered  at  the  time  of  each  test. 

For  the  tests  we  can  use  such  material  as  the  monthly  tests  of  the  Un- 
derwood Typewriter  Co.,  or  the  material  used  in  the  International  Type- 
writing Contests,  copies  of  which  are  furnished  by  the  Underw'ood  Type- 
writer Co. 

e.  DETAILS  OF  PROCEDURE. 

( I )     Copies  of  Instructions  and  Precautions. 

Among  the  precautions  should  be  mentioned  the  fact  that  special  care 
must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  touch  students  adhere  absolutely  to  touch. 


104  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

The  others  will  not  have  to  be  watched  so  much  because  it  is  more  or  less 
laisscs-faire  with  them,  and  there  is  very  little  danger  of  their  doing  the 
touch  method  if  they  are  not  compelled  to  do  it. 

If  the  individual  method  is  used,  the  teacher  should  be  cautioned  to  see 
that  the  tests  are  taken  regularly  each  month.  See  p.  83  ff.  for  further 
suggestions  relative  to  the  details  of  procedure. 

2.     Form.     • 

The  balance  of  the  outline  applies  uniformly  to  all  experiments  and  is 
covered  fully  on  p.  62  fi. 

a.     TYPEWRITING. 

Experiment  No.   5.     Should  the   Schools  Have  Open  or  Blank  Key- 
boards on  the  Typewriters  Used  for  Instruction  Purposes ? 

I.     FORMULATION 
I.     Introduction. 

a.  General  Statement. 

Typewriters  can  be  had  eitlu-r  with  the  open  keyboard  or  the  blank  key- 
board. .\n  open  keyboard  is  one  that  has  letters  on  the  keys ;  a  blank  key- 
board has  no  mark  on  the  kevs  to  indicate  what  thev  are.  Both  of  these 
are  used  in  schools.  Some  teachers  absolutely  insist  on  the  blank  key- 
board and  would  not  tolerate  anything  else  in  their  class  rooms.  If  these 
machines  are  so  much  superior  to  the  others,  that  such  a  positive  stand  can 
be  taken  by  many  teachers,  all  of  the  schools  should  use  them.  But  why 
do  they  not?  If  there  is  a  great  advantage,  it  should  not  be  difficult  to 
prove  it  scientifically.     That  is  the  purpose  of  this  experiment. 

b.  Survey  of  Experiments  Made. 

No  experiments  along  the  line  of  this  question  have  been  found  in  the 
present  research.  The  Underwood  Typewriter  Company  was  asked  the 
following  questions : 

"Does  your  Comi)any  express  any  preference  with  regard  to 
blank  or  open  keyboards?  Do  you  know  whether  anyone  has  act- 
ually tested  the  thing  out,  either  on  individuals  or  classes  ?" 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  105 

The  following"  reply  was  received  from  the  Manager  of  the  Educational 
Department : 

"Our  Company  has  no  preference  with  regard  to  blank  or 
open  keyboards.  So  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  learn,  schools  that 
have  tested  the  matter  out  prefer  the  blank  keyboard." 

On  inquiring  relative  to  the  tests  mentioned,  no  further  information 
was  obtained. 

c.     Differentiation. 

In  view  of  the  above,  no  differentiation  is  necessary,  as  the  experiment 
suggested  stands  by  itself. 

2.     Specific  Statement. 

This  experiment  is  undertaken  to  try  to  determine  whether  the  schools 
should  use  open  or  blank  keyboards  on  the  typewriters  used  for  instruc- 
tion purposes. 

li.     SELECTION  OF  LABORATORY 

1.  Groups  Chosen. 

The  groups  chosen  could  be  any  class  of  pupils  wdio  are  beginners  in 
Typewriting.  They  could  be  pupils  in  the  junior  high  school,  senior  high 
school,  or  business  school.* 

The  class  chosen  must  be  divided  into  two  sections,  one  using  the  open 
keyboard  and  the  other  using  the  blank  keyboard.  The  sections  do  not 
necessarily  have  to  meet  at  separate  times  or  places,  but  the  names  of  the 
pupils  must,  at  least,  be  kept  on  separate  lists.  There  is  no  diff'erence 
whatever  in  the  instruction,  the  only  difference  being  in  the  typewriter 
used,  and  because  of  this,  both  sections  could  be  carried  on  at  the  same 
time. 

2.  Schools  Chosen. 

a.     General  Character  of  the  Student  P>odv. 


♦Business  School  will  be  used  as  the  term  mcaniusr  all  private  business  schools, 
whether  they  use  in  their  incorporated  title  the  misnomer  of  Business  "College," 
or  the  less  pretentious  but  more  correct  term  of  Business  School  or  School  of 
Business. 


io6  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH  ' 

No  particular  effort  need  be  made  to  obtain  any  certain  type  of  stu- 
dent body.  We  are  seeking  information  relative  to  the  effect  that  these 
keyboards  have  on  pupils  of  various  types.  Pupils  of  many  classes  are 
taking  up  the  study  of  typewriting.  Whatever  class  the  student  may  be, 
he  is  obliged  to  submit  to  the  machine  which  the  head  of  the  department  or 
teacher  has  decreed,  whether  it  be  a  blank  or  open  keyboard.  Therefore, 
we  do  not  want  to  discriminate  and  choose  merely  one  kind  of  student.  If 
the  problem  works  one  way  in  one  school  and  another  way  in  another,  we 
want  sufficient  information  at  hand  to  decide  whether  the  difference  lies  in 
the  type  of  the  student  or  in  some  other  factor.  Therefore,  the  report 
should  give  full  information  regarding  the  kind  of  pupils  taking  the  work. 

b.  Accessibility. 

The  school  should  be  accessible  to  the  experimenter,  as  explained  on  p. 

37  ff- 

c.  Co-operation. 

The  necessary  co-operation  should  exist  on  the  part  of  all  concerned,  as 
described  on  p.  38  ff. 

3.     Teachers  Chosen. 

The  teacher  chosen  should  be  sufficiently  intelligent  to  handle  the  ex- 
periment. She  should  have  the  scientific  attitude  of  mind  and  be  profes- 
sionally interested  in  the  results,  as  explained  at  length  on  p.  41  ff. 

One  teacher  should  have  charge  of  both  sections  of  the  class,  so  that 
the  matter  of  personality  will  not  enter  as  a  varying  factor. 

She  should  not  be  prejudiced  in  favor  of  either  method  and  must  not 
even  express  her  opinion  or  choice  so  that  it  will  reach  the  students.  It 
will  require  keen  observation  to  see  that  the  pupils  do  not  look  at  the  key- 
board. She  cannot  be  a  teacher  who  does  not  see  things  that  transpire. 
She  should  not  give  more  attention  to  one  section  than  to  the  other. 

III.     CHOICE  OF  CONDUCTOR 

The  regular  teacher  will  generally  be  the  person  who  would  be  most 
likely  to  conduct  this  experiment,  although  anyone  else  having  the  neces- 
sary qualifications  could  do  so,  since  it  comes  at  the  beginning  of  a  sub- 
ject before  the  students  have  become  accustomed  to  any  one  particular 
person. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  107 

TV.     DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  PROCEDURE 
I.     Content. 

a.     Difficulties, 
(i)    Equalization  Test. 
Final  Tests. 

What  has  been  said  under  Experiment  No.  4  in  this  regard,  also  applies 
in  this  case.     See  p.   101  fF. 

(2)    I'rcliniinary  Conferences. 

What  has  been  said  in  the  above  mentioned  Experiment  under  this 
heading,  applies  here  also.     vSee  p.  102  tT. 

(  3  )    Any  other  difficulties. 

We  must  be  on  guard  so  as  not  to  confuse  the  point  at  issue  in  this  ex- 
periment with  anything  else.  \\'e  are  trying  to  decide  which  keyboard  is 
the  better  for  touch  typewriting.  We  are  not  trying  to  decide  whether 
touch  typewriting  is  better  than  sight;  that  is  the  subject  of  an  experi- 
ment by  itself.  If  we  do  not  keep  close  check  on  our  thinking,  we  may 
find  that  ai  the  knotty  points,  we  run  into  the  other  problem. 

The  requirements  of  touch  typewriting  must  be  taken  into  account  at 
all  times.  The  teacher  must  constantly  be  on  guard  to  see  that  none  of 
the  students  watch  their  fingers  during  the  regular  practice  ])eriods  or  at 
any  other  time.  If  a  teacher  finds  that  she  must  keep  closer  watch  on  the 
students  who  have  open  keyboards  than  on  the  students  who  have  blank 
keyboards,  it  should  be  a  consideration  in  deciding  the  matter  of  the  value 
of  the  one  as  against  the  other.  Therefore,  the  teacher  in  this  experiment 
should  be  very  observant  and  make  record  of  her  efl'orts  in  keeping  stu- 
<lents  to  the  things  they  should  do.  Her  record  should  show  the  number  of 
times  each  student  has  not  used  his  eyes  properly,  whether  she  has  actually 
been  able  to  speak  to  him  individually  each  time  regarding  it  or  not.  This 
record  would  at  least  prove  very  interesting  as  a  side  light,  if  not  as  tiie 
chief  evidence  in  determining  a  question  of  this  kind.  She  could  have  a 
list  of  the  names  of  the  students  with  columns  ojjposite,  wherein  could 
he  noted  the  number  of  times  she  is  obliged  to  speak  to  each  student  each 


io8  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

day  during  practice,  because  of  watching  the  keyboard.  This  information- 
should  be  tabulated  for  each  section. 

One  considerable  difficulty  will  be  that  of  determining  the  basis  for  our 
conclusions. 

We  have  three  kinds  of  data  in  this  experiment,  that  could  be  used  in 
determining  the  value  of  the  open  keyboard  as  against  the  blank  one : 

We  could  determine  it  on  the  basis  of  the  effort  necessary  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher,  to  produce  touch  typists  with  each  kind  of 
keyboard. 

We  could  determine  it  on  the  basis  of  the  student's  ability  to 
do  the  touch  typewriting  during  a  test. 

W^e  could  determine  it  on  the  basis  of  the  speed  attained  by 
the  student. 

The  last  basis  would  not  be  absolutely  correct.  Up  to  a  certain  point  it 
is  to  be  expected  that  sight  operators  make  better  speed.  If  the  students 
using  the  blank  keyboards  make  better  speed  than  the  others,  it  would  be 
important,  but  nothing  could  be  inferred  as  against  the  blank  keyboards, 
if  the  speed  of  the  pupils  using  lettered  keyboards  was  better,  because  this 
experiment  is  not  planned  to  run  over  a  sufficiently  long  time  to  consider 
permanent  speed.  It  is  simply  a  temporary  speed  that  is  being  recorded, 
which  is  believed  by  many  to  turn  in  favor  of  touch  typewriting  after  a 
certain  point — the  point  where  looking  off  ones  copy  loses  more  time  than 
watching  ones  fingers  gains. 

The  second  basis  would  be  a  method  that  would  economize  the  teacher's 
time,  and  yet  would  seem  valid.  The  strain  of  exceedingly  careful  watch- 
ing would  last  for  the  period  of  the  test  only.  It  would  seem  to  be  fair  to 
the  student,  nevertheless,  because  if  the  student  did  touch  typewriting,  he 
should  be  able  to  demonstrate  it  in  a  ten-minute  test.  It  would  be  inter- 
esting to  notice  whether  or  not  the  student  changed  his  tactics  in  succeed- 
ing tests. 

The  first  basis  would  require  the  most  work  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 
She  would  be  required  to  keep  an  accurate  record  of  each  occasion  on 
which  it  was  necessary  to  speak  to  the  student  about  watching  his  keys, 
whether  she  actually  did  speak  or  not.  This  w^ould  seem  to  be  a  valid 
means,  however,  of  comparing  the  relative  value  of  the  two  kinds  of  key- 
boards for  touch  typewriting.  Touch  typewriting  requires  that  the  stu- 
dent does  not  watch  his  fingers  or  keys.  If  the  students  with  lettered  keys 
require  much  more  attention  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  in  order  to  acquire 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  109 

touch  typewriting,  than  those  using  blank  keys,  it  would  certainly  show  an 
advantage  in  favor  of  the  blank  keys.  It  would  hardly  seem  necessary 
to  have  more  proof  to  establish  the  superiority  of  machines  with  the  blank 
keys. 

It  is  rather  difficult  to  decide  which  of  the  last  mentioned  bases  is  the 
better.  To  dispose  of  much  argument,  we  could,  without  much  trouble^ 
obtain  the  data  for  both.  If  one  is  just  as  valid  as  the  other,  the  results 
ought  to  confirm  each  other,  and  we  would  have  the  more  reason  to  believe 
that  we  had  used  a  valid  procedure. 

It  is  suggested,  therefore,  that  wherever  the  experiment  is  tried,  a  rec- 
ord be  kept  both  as  to  the  teacher's  efforts  to  produce  touch  typists,  and, 
also,  the  ability  of  the  students  to  do  touch  typewriting  in  a  ten-minute 
test. 

During  the  tests,  however,  no  one  should  be  allowed  to  look  at  his  key- 
board. Anybody  doing  it  disqualifies  himself  on  the  matter  of  his  ability 
to  do  touch  typewriting  and  his  record  counts  against  that  of  his  section. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  who  do  not  know  the  requirements  of  the  touch 
system,  it  might  be  well  to  make  a  few  statements  at  this  point.  By  touch 
typewriting  we  do  not  mean  that  a  student  must  never  look  at  his  fingers 
or  the  keyboard.  There  are  times  when  a  student  must  look.  After  he 
has  had  his  fingers  off  the  keys,  for  instance,  when  he  has  brought  his 
carriage  over  to  the  beginning  of  a  new  line,  a  student  must  get  his  fingers 
properly  placed  on  the  keyboard  before  he  can  proceed.  Beginners  cannot 
be  expected  to  place  their  fingers  on  the  proper  keys  without  looking  where 
they  place  them.  This  is  perfectly  permissible.  Any  other  like  reason 
would  also  allow  the  students  to  look  at  their  fingers  a  second  or  two.. 
But  that  is  quite  a  different  thing  from  being  obliged  to  look  at  the  fingers 
in  order  to  be  able  to  strike  the  correct  keys.  A  person  experienced  in 
touch  typewriting  can  very  easily  tell  whether  the  puj^il  is  looking  be- 
cause of  valid  reasons  or  because  he  is  not  a  touch  operator. 

b.     Time. 

For  the  purposes  of  the  experiment  it  would  not  make  any  difference 
how  often  a  class  meets,  as  long  as  both  sections  have  the  same  advan- 
tages.   It  could  be  twice  a  week,  three  times  a  week,  or  more. 

A  test  should  be  given  when  the  class  completes  its  work  on  the  small 
letters  and  is  just  about  ready  to  proceed  with  the  shift  key.  Another  one 
could  be  given  after  they  have  had  some  practice  with  the  shift  key,  un- 
less it  came  too  close  to  the  regular  monthly  test ;  another  should  take 
place  one  month  from  the  day  the  first  instruction  was  given,  and  subse- 


no  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

quent  ones  at  regular  monthly  intervals  thereafter,  for  whatever  time  the 
experiment  continues. 

The  final  date  of  the  experiment  cannot  be  definitely  set.  It  will  de- 
pend largely  upon  how  long  one  section  survives,  and  that  is  part  of  the 
answer  for  which  we  are  experimenting.  If  one  or  two  months  show  that 
one  section  is  at  great  disadvantage,  it  would  seem  wise  to  discontinue  that 
method  at  once. 

The  section  that  survives  with  the  greatest  number  of  touch  operators 
would  indicate  the  method  that  should  be  followed  in  cur  schools.  There 
should  be  a  considerable  difference  between  the  two  sections  in  order  to 
show  any  decided  tendency.  If  one  section  had  29  survivors 'and  the  oth- 
er had  28,  we  could  not  say  that  one  keyboard  was  superior  to  the  other. 
If  one,  however,  produced  30  and  the  other  5,  and  all  conditions  were 
scrupulously  met,  it  would  point  strongly  in  favor  of  the  30.  If  these  are 
valid  results,  they  should  duplicate  themselves  approximately  in  similar 
experiments  tried  elsewhere. 

If  the  results  appear  absolutely  contrary  to  sound  reasoning,  we  shall 
have  to  look  for  the  trouble-making-factor ;  if  they  are  in  accord  with 
sound  reasoning,  we  can  consider  the  results  valid. 

c.  Periods. 

Both  sections  should  take  the  work  during  the  same  period  of  the  day 
if  possible,  taking  for  granted  that  their  schedule  is  the  same  every  day. 
We  insist  that  one  teacher  should  have  charge  of  both  sections,  and,  there- 
fore, there  are  only  two  possibilities  of  having  both  sections  meet  during 
the  same  period  of  the  day.  If  the  two  sections  met  as  one  class,  in  a  room 
where  both  blank  and  open  keyboards  were  in  use,  it  would  be  possible. 
Also,  if  the  class  met  only  twice  a  week — one  section  on  Monday  and 
Thursday  at,  let  us  say,  the  fourth  period,  and  the  other  section  on  Tues- 
day and  Friday  at  the  4th  period. 

If  neither  of  the  two  arrangements  just  suggested  are  possible,  then 
the  next  best  thing  would  be  to  have  the  sections  meet  at  such  periods 
Avhen  they  would  be  equally  fatigued  or  equally  prime.  The  work  which 
precedes  would  have  to  determine  that,  as  explained  on  p.  56  ff. 

If  any  of  this  work  is  to  be  done  during  the  cold  weather,  it  would  not 
he  wise  to  hold  the  meeting  of  the  class  during  the  first  period  of  any  ses- 
sion, because  those  who  come  in  late — just  from  the  cold — would  have 
stiff  fingers  and  would  not  be  able  to  do  good  work  until  their  fingers 
were  warmed  up. 

d.  Subject-matter. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  iii 

The  subject-matter  to  be  used  would  be  the  regular  typewriting  text 
book  in  use  by  the  school. 

Ten-minute  tests  on  the  International  Typewriting  Contest  matter  and 
rules  should  be  given.  In  the  first  test,  of  course,  before  the  pupil  has 
learned  the  use  of  punctuation  and  capitals,  he  should  not  be  required  to 
use  them  in  the  test,  and  should  be  marked  accordingly. 

Of  course,  the  touch  typewriting  method  will  be  taught.  There  would 
be  no  purpose  in  trying  this  experiment  with  any  other  method,  as  the 
blank  keyboards  were  introduced  as  an  aid  to  touch  typewriting.  The 
blank  keyboard  does  not  claim  any  advantages  for  the  sight  operator. 

There  should  be  but  one  varying  factor,  namely,  the  keyboards.  Other- 
wise everything"  should  be  uniform,  instruction  included. 

e.     Details  of  procedure. 

(i)      Copy  of  Instructions. 

The  instructions  should  state  that  there  should  be  two  sections,  one 
with  the  open  keyboard  and  the  other  with  the  blank  keyboard.  The  two 
sections  need  not  necessarily  meet  at  different  times.  See  p.  220,  Section  c. 

The  teacher  should  be  cautioned  to  be  very  keenly  on  the  watch  for 
those  who  use  their  eyes  improperly,  that  is.  for  those  who  look  at  the 
keyboard  when  they  should  not.  All  through  the  regular  lesson  practice 
period,  she  will  have  to  keep  close  watch,  and  especially  so  when  the  tests 
take  place. 

(2)  Time  limits. 

A  definite  date  should  be  set  for  the  beginning  of  the  experiment.  The 
first  test  given  after  the  class  is  organized  will  be  immediately  before  the 
shift  key  is  used ;  another  when  the  pupils  have  had  sufficient  time  to  be- 
come accustomed  to  the  shift  key ;  another,  one  month  after  beginning 
typewriting;  and  others  thereafter  at  regular  monthly  periods.  The  final 
date  of  the  experiment  will  depend  on  each  separate  class.     See  p.  no. 

(3)  Form,  order,  and  methods  of  giving  directions.  The  teacher  need 
not  tell  the  students  anything  about  the  experiment.  The  instruction  for 
both  sections  will  be  exactly  alike,  and  the  work  they  do  will  be  the  same. 
The  only  difference  is  that  there  are  some  operating  blank  keyboards  and 
others  operating  open  keyboards.  There  might  be  many  reasons  for  find- 
ing two  kinds  of  keyboards  in  one  school  or  in  one  room.  This  need 
arouse  no  suspicions.  i-Vt  West  Chester  blank  keyboards  are  desired, 
but  during  the  War  it  was  necessary  to  take  what  machines  could  be  ob- 
tained, and  a  year  and  a  half  after  the  Armistice  was  signed,  they  still 
must  use  some  open  keyboards  because  these  machines  were  not  blank 


112  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

when  sent,  and  the  man  who  is  to  do  the  blanking,  has  not  been  able  to 
find  the  time  to  come  to  West  Chester  to  attend  to  the  matter.  On  a  pre- 
vious occasion  a  long  wait  was  necessaray  to  get  all  the  machines  of  the 
room  blanked. 

The  teacher  should  urge  each  student  to  make  the  best  individual  rec- 
ord. Nothing  need  be  said  about  sections  at  all.  If  the  students  suspect 
that  the  result  of  the  test  may  take  away  the  open  keyboards,  they  may 
conspire  to  make  that  impossible,  by  purposely  producing  other  results. 

(4)  Record  of  interruptions,  temperature,  weather,  ventilation,  mis- 
steps, etc.,  should  be  made.    See  p.  59  ff. 

2.     Form. 

The  balance  of  the  outline  applies  uniformly  to  all  the  experiments  and 
is  fully  covered  on  p.  62  ff. 

b.     SHORTHAND. 

On  this  subject  the  methods  of  procedure  for  six  experiments  will  be 
developed : 

1.  The  first  one  is  an  attempt  to  get  information  which  will  enable 

a  teacher  to  know  when  she  may  expect  the  students  of  her 
"  class  to  have  fixed  in  their  minds  any  outlines  that  she  had 

presented  to  the  class,  that  is,  how  many  presentations  are 
necessary  to  fix  an  outline. 

2.  The  second  is  an  attempt  to  get  a  basis  for  judging  the  length  of 

a  lesson,  to  know  how  many  new  ideas  can  be  presented  in  a 
lesson  with  a  reasonable  expectation  of  their  being  retained. 

3.  The  third  is  an  attempt  to  get  data  that  will  help  in  making  up 

schedules,  to  know  what  is  the  best  method  of  arranging 
classes — every  day,  every  other  day,  or  is  every  third  day  too 
infrequent  to  reasonably  expect  much  progress — in  other 
words,  intervals  of  repetition. 

4.  The  fourth  is  an  attempt  to  predetermine  those  who  will  never 

make  high-speed  stenographers  because  of  high  personal  co- 
efficient. 

5.  The  fifth  is  a  question  of  forearm  movement  versus  finger  move- 

ment in  stenography. 

6.  The  sixth  is  an  attempt  to  determine  what  drill  would  be  most 

valuable  to  the  shorthand  student. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  113 

b.     SHORTHAND. 

Experiment  No.   i.     The  Number  of  Presentations  Necessary  to  Fix 
an  Outline. 

I.     FORMULATION 
I.     Introduction. 

a.     General  Statement. 

]\Iany  shorthand  teachers  have  no  doubt  been  frecjuently  exasperated 
to  find  that  after  they  have  put  a  certain  outhne  on  the  board  time  and  time 
again,  there  are  still  some  in  the  class  who  have  not  absorbed  it.  We  all 
know  full  well  that  one  presentation  to  a  class  is  not  sufficient.  A  few 
may  remember  it  from  one  presentation,  but  the  majority  will  not.  Since 
we  must  expect  to  give  more  than  one  presentation,  after  how  many  may 
we  feel  that  the  idea  should  begin  to  take  root  with  the  greater  part  of  the 
class  ? 

One  thing  that  will  have  to  be  considered  in  this  is  the  time  element — 
the  interval  of  repetition — but  that  is  a  factor  by  itself.  It  would  seem 
reasonable  to  say  that  we  could  not  expect  fewer  presentations  to  do  the 
work  if  the  interval  is  greater  than  if  the  interval  is  very  short.  There- 
fore, our  first  task  will  be  to  find  how  many  presentations  we  must  make 
with  a  comparatively  short  interval,  or  practically  no  interval,  and  after 
we  know  that,  it  may  guide  us  as  a  minimum  number  of  presentations,  to 
be  used  in  determining  the  other  factor,  that  of  interval. 

If  we  can  succeed  in  getting  an  experiment  that  will  be  valid,  then  a 
teacher  wall  not  be  wasting  time  by  presenting  the  outline  more  times  than 
necessary,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  she  will  not  be  doing  inefficient  w^ork  by 
not  presenting  it  often  enough  to  reasonably  expect  the  students  to  get  it. 
It  will  make  for  efficiency  in  our  teaching,  and  give  the  teacher  some  ob- 
jective basis  for  her  method. 

This  involves  psychology,  of  course,  and  some  experiments  may  be  ap- 
plied to  it,  and  inferences  drawn  from  it.  Some  experiments  should  be 
conducted  in  the  subject  itself  where  the  principles  are  to  be  applied,  how- 
ever. It  may  be  an  entirely  analogous  case  and  it  may  not  be.  The  only 
way  to  be  certain  is  to  try  it.  ]\Iany  vmforeseen  factors  loom  up  in  situa- 
tions that  had  appeared  to  be  identical  but  which  later  proved  not  to  be  so. 
If  the  fields  arc  identical,  nothing  will  have  been  lost,  because  the  conclu- 
sion reached  will  confirm  that  of  previous  experiments,  and  help  to  make 
the  result  all  the  more  certain  of  being  soundly  grounded.     If  the  result 


114  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

does  not  bear  out  the  former  conclusion,  it  will  show  that  there  was  some 
element  in  the  situation  which  had  not  been  anticipated  and  therefore 
there  is  all  the  more  reason  for  treating  it  as  a  separate  case. 

b.  Survey  of  Experiments  Made. 

The  investigation  has  disclosed  no  experiment  in  this  field. 

c.  Differentiation. 

Therefore,  no  differentiation  is  necessarv. 

2.     Specific  Statement. 

This  experiment  is  planned  to  help  answer  the  cjuestion,  "How  many 
presentations  are  necessary  to  fix  a  shorthand  outline?" 

H.     SELECTION  OF  LABORATORY 

I.     Groups  Chosen. 

Beginners  in  the  study  of  Shorthand  should  be  chosen. 

The  number  of  presentations  necessary  to  fix  an  outline,  of  course,  will 
depend  upon  the  number  of  associations  a  student  can  make  to  retain  the 
outline.  It  will  depend  upon  his  apperception  or  the  manysidedness  of  his 
knowledge,  and  of  his  ability  to  apply  that  manysidedness.  \A'hen  one 
reaches  the  point  where  he  might  make  many  connections  and  thus  help 
himself  to  fix  an  idea,  another  factor  may  enter  into  the  experiment — the 
ability  or  desire  to  make  the  connection,  the  influence  of  which  factor  it 
would  be  difficult  to  determine.  In  other  words,  let  us  say  that  we  are 
presenting  an  idea  which  can  be  hitched  up  to  a  great  many  ideas  in  the 
possession  of  all  the  students.  Some  of  them  will  make  all  the  connections 
and  therefore  get  the  idea  firmly  fixed,  while  others,  through  inattention 
or  lack  of  desire  to  exercise  the  necessary  mental  concentration,  will  not 
make  the  connections,  and,  therefore,  will  not  get  the  idea  so  well  fixed. 
It  would  be  difficult  to  determine  whether  the  number  of  presentations  is 
the  element  responsible  for  not  getting  the  work,  or  mental  laziness. 

This,  then,  is  a  factor  to  be  avoided  if  possible.  It  can  be  greatly  elimi- 
nated by  choosing  for  experimentation  elementary  things  in  a  subject, 
which  things  as  yet  do  not  have  many  connections  in  the  mind  of  the  stu- 
dent.    In  Shorthand  it  would,  therefore,  seem  best  to  experiment  on  be- 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  115 

ginners'  classes  and  to  experiment  on  the  alphabet,  which  takes  them  at  a 
point  where  the  whole  subject-matter  is  new  to  them  and  where  there  are 
very  few  connections  with  what  is  already  in  their  minds,  and  where  they 
must  get  it  from  the  presentation  of  the  teacher.  If  an  advanced  class  is 
taken,  it  seems  to  the  writer  that  the  results  would  not  be  just  as  valid  for 
laying  down  a  general  principle,  because  the  element  of  interconnections 
would  enter,  as  mentioned  above.  It  would,  nevertheless,  be  interesting 
to  have  some  experiments  made  on  advanced  students  to  see  just  how 
much  our  supposition  regarding  them  is  warranted  and  how  the  results 
compare  with  those  obtained  from  the  beginners. 

The  present  experiment  is  planned  for  beginners  in  the  subject  of  Short- 
hand. 

2.     Schools  Chosen. 

a.  General  Character  of  Student  Body. 

The  experiment  should  be  tried  in  as  many  schools  as  it  is  possible  to 
get  to  undertake  the  matter,  and  it  should  be  undertaken  with  the  Pitman ic 
systems  as  well  as  the  Gregg  and  others. 

The  object  of  this  experiment,  as  of  some  of  the  others,  will  be,  not  to 
ascertain  what  is  the  result  with  an  ideal  class  under  ideal  conditions. 
That  \\ill  be  a  development  of  the  years  to  come,  but  the  object  of  this  ex- 
periment will  be  to  ascertain  how  many  times  do  we  find  it  necessary  to 
present  ideas  to  the  students  at  present  in  our  schools,  taking  them  just  as 
they  are — bright,  dull,  mediocre,  etc. — and  under  normal  school  conditions 
existing  today,  with  good  teachers,  poor  teachers,  and  medium  teachers. 
W^e  shall  then  at  least  be  able  to  say  that  a  certain  class  gets  it  or  does  not 
get  it,  after  having  had  the  number  of  presentations  required  by  the  aver- 
age for  the  schools  tested  ;  or  if  we  find  that  the  average  will  not  give  us 
a  correct  understanding  of  what  is  needed,  we  can  use  whatever  other  fig- 
ure seems  best.  This  would  be  a  decided  step  in  advance  of  present  condi- 
tions.    From  this  we  could  work  out  the  matter  more  ideally. 

Therefore,  the  exjieriment  could  be  tried  in  any  school  and  with  any 
student  body.  It  would  be  of  value  if  some  details  were  given  in  the  re- 
port, as  to  the  character  of  the  school  and  student  body,  whether  the 
shorthand  work  is  considered  first  class  or  not,  and  whether  the  students 
come  from  the  better  families  of  the  community  or  from  the  foreign  ele- 
ment. Some  of  these  remarks,  of  course,  will  only  be  opinions,  and  will 
be  regarded  as  such,  but  they  might  throw  some  light  on  variations. 

b.  Accessibilitv. 


ii6  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

The  school  should  be  accessible  to  the  experimenter  as  mentioned  on 
p.  36  ff. 

c.     Co-operation. 

There  should  be  co-operation  on  the  part  of  everyone,  as  explained  on 
p.  38  ff. 

3.     Teachers  Chosen. 

Because  of  the  complex  method  involved,  it  will  be  necessary  to  obtain, 
for  the  experiment,  teachers  of  more  than  ordinary  intelligence.  It  would 
be  better  for  the  experimenter  to  conduct  the  work  himself,  but,  if  this 
is  impossible,  the  next  best  thing  would  be  to  have  a  good  teacher  do  it, 
"being  sure  that  the  instructions  are  written  out  fully  for  her  and  in  such 
a  way  that  she  understands  them. 

The  teacher  should  meet  the  conditions  specified  on  p.  41  fi. 

III.     CHOICE  OF  CONDUCTOR 

It  would  be  well,  if  possible,  for  the  experimenter  to  do  the  work  him- 
self. The  subject-matter  is  new  to  the  students,  they  have  not  become  ac- 
customed to  any  teacher  in  that  subject,  and  therefore  no  disturbing  ele- 
ment would  enter  by  having  anyone  else  than  the  regular  teacher  take 
charge. 

The  teacher  herself  could  undertake  it  if  she  is  fully  conversant  with  the 
instructions. 

What  has  been  said  on  p.  44  ff.  regarding  choice  of  conductor  also  ap- 
plies here. 

IV.     DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  PROCEDURE 

I.     Content. 

a.     Difficulties. 

(I)     Tests. 

There  will  be  no  need  for  preliminary  tests,  as  we  are  going  to  take 

things  as  we  find  them.     It  would  help  in  reconciling  variations,  however, 

if  the  report  contained  some  information  about  the  students,  such  as  the 

age,  to  which  class  in  high  school  they  belong,  whether  they  are  taking 


t 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  117 

the  two  year  or  four  year  commercial  course,  whether  the  room  in  which 
the  instruction  was  given  is  so  arranged  that  all  the  students  could  well 
see  the  work  on  the  board,  whether  they  are  a  high,  medium,  or  low  type 
■of  student,  generally  speaking,  etc.  The  time  between  ])re-entations 
might  be  noted. 

See  p.  118.  under  Details  of  Procedure,  for  final  tests. 

(2)  If  the  investigator  is  going  to  do  this  work  himself,  of  course, 
there  will  be  no  need  of  conferences  with  teachers,  but  unless  he  does  that, 
he  should  have  conferences  with  the  teachers  to  explain  just  what  is  to  be 
done,  and  to  state  clearlx  that  the  essential  thing  is  to  make  only  the  num- 
ber of  presentations  called  for  and  to  make  them  properly.  A  carefully 
planned,  written  set  of  instructions  should  be  handed  to  the  teachers  for 
them  to  study  in  advance  of  the  time  for  the  experiment. 

(3)  Other  Difficulties. 

The  essential  feature  will  be  testing  the  student  after  each  presentation, 
to  see  whether  or  not  that  presentation  has  fixed  the  idea.  It  will  dift'er 
from  Experiment  No.  2  under  Shorthand,  in  that  only  one  idea  will  be 
presented  at  a  time  in  the  present  experiment  and  then  tested  for.  The  ob- 
ject of  this  experiment  is  not  to  see  how  many  ideas  can  be  presented  at 
one  time  and  how  many  repetitions  are  necessary.  There  are  two  factors 
in  such  a  question,  as  will  readily  be  seen.  This  experiment  merely  tries 
to  determine  how  many  times  an  idea  must  be  presented  by  itself  in  order 
to  stick,  and  its  practical  api)lication  comes  when  in  the  midst  of 
a  lesson  a  student  will  ask,  "How  do  you  write  such  and  such  a 
word  ?"  That  is  a  single  idea  at  a  time.  How  many  times  is  it  reasonable 
to  answer  that  question  for  that  class?  That  is  the  purpose  of  this  experi- 
ment. The  one  chief  difficulty  will  be  that  there  will  be  considerable  mark- 
ing of  papers  and  the  method  will  likelv  interfere  with  the  teacher's  reg- 
ular way  of  presenting  the  alphabet  to  the  class,  and  it  may  delay  the 
class  somewhat  in  its  scheduled  progress.  But  it  is  worth  while  if  scien- 
tific data  can  be  obtained  thereby. 

b.     Time. 

The  experiment  should  be  conducted  during  the  regular  shorthand 
period  and  the  number  of  letters  presented  will  be  linfited  by  the  length  of 
the  period.  That  will  have  to  be  adjusted  in  each  case,  and  a  record  kept 
of  it.  At  the  beginning  of  each  ])eriod  there  should  be  a  test  on  the  work 
of  the  previous  period  to  see  how  much  has  really  been  retained.  (  If  the 
teacher  could  take  the  time  to  glance  at  these  papers  before  proceeding 
M"ith  the  work  of  the  class,  they  might  cast  light  on  some  flaws  that  ob- 


ii8  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

tained  in  the  last  recitation.)  The  experiment  will  necessarily  be  con- 
ducted at  the  beginning  of  the  study  of  shorthand,  whenever  that  takes 
place. 

c.  Periods. 

The  time  of  day  will  be  the  regular  shorthand  period.  Of  course,  the 
efficiency  of  the  work  will  depend  greatly  upon  what  preceded.  A  note 
should  be  made  of  the  lessons  that  preceded,  so  that  this  data  may  be 
taken  into  account  when  considering  the  results.  Ideal  conditions,  of 
course,  would  likely  give  a  dift'erent  result  but  we  now  wish  to  ascertain 
how  many  times,  under  existing  conditions,  it  is  necessary  to  present  an 
idea  in  order  to  fix  it.  With  this  as  a  guide,  we  will  then  be  better  able 
to  proceed  with  the  experiment  to  help  determine  how  many  ideas  can  be 
presented  at  one  time. 

d.  Subject-matter. 

The  subject-matter  to  be  used  for  the  experiment  will  be  the  shorthand 
alphabet,  no  matter  what  system  is  being  taught.  The  object  is  to  give  the 
students  the  most  elementary  things — things  for  which  they  have  up  to 
this  time  the  least  number  of  mental  connections  to  which  to-  hitch  them. 
In  the  Pitmanic  systems,  the  consonants  will  be  taken  first  and  then  the 
vowels,  although  there  is  no  particular  reason  against  reversing  the  order, 
or  mixing  the  consonants  and  vowels.  We  may  find  that  we  shall  be 
obliged  to  reach  one  decision  for  the  consonants  and  another  for  the  vow- 
els, in  the  Pitman  systems,  because  of  the  difirerence  in  the  nature  of  the 
marks  for  these  letters. 

e.  Detail  of  Procedure. 

(i)  Following  is  a  detail  of  the  procedure  which  should  be  handed  tO' 
the  teachers  in  charge  of  the  classes : 

The  object  of  this  experiment  is  to  ascertain  how  many  times  it  is  neces- 
sary to  present  an  idea  to  a  regular  class  (that  is,  not  an  ideal  class,  but  a 
class  as  we  find  it  in  our  school)  before  the  majority  of  the  class  get  it  in 
such  a  way  that  it  becomes  fixed. 

The  experiment  will  be  conducted  with  the  beginners  in  shorthand  and 
it  will  cover  only  the  period  taken  by  the  class  for  the  alphabet.  No  text 
books  should  be  handed  to  the  class  for  the  reason  that  if  they  are,  the 
students  can,  before  the  next  lesson,  look  at  the  page  giving  the  alphabet 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION 


119 


and  have  some  presentations  which  will  not  be  recorded  and  the  results, 
therefore,  will  be  made  invalid. 

Those  teaching  any  of  the  Pitmanic  systems  will  present  8  of  the  con- 
sonants at  a  lesson,  and  then  six  vowels,  in  the  following  order,  let  us  say: 
p,  t,  ch,  k,  b,  d,  j,  g, 
f,  th,  s,  sh,  V,  dh,  z,  zh, 
m,  n,  mb,  ng,  1,  r,  y,  w, 
the  three  light  dots  and  three  heavy  dots, 
the  three  light  dashes  and  three  heavy  dashes, 
the  dipthongs. 
It  will  be  fovmd  that  the  matter  of  getting  papers  ready  and  arranged 
takes  up  considerable  time.     One  thing  that  must  be  borne  in  mind  is  that 
we  cannot  give  the  students  any  opportunity  to  get  even  an  unrecorded 
glance  at  a  letter.     This  must  carefully  be  taken  into  consideration. 

Therefore,  the  papers  must  either  be  collected  after  each  presentation 
and  test  or  else  the  papers  must  be  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  folded, 
thus  making  it  imi)ossible  for  the  student  to  see  what  he  has  already  writ- 
ten. 

The  following  method  was  tried  in  the  West  Chester  High  School : 
The  class  was  given  the  regular  pages  torn  from  shorthand  note  books, 
which  had  been  cut  crosswise  in  this  fashion : 


Name,    Date 


They  were  not  cut  quite  to  the  end,  so  that  it  would  be  easier  to  pass 
the  papers  out,  and  so  that  the  student  could  put  his  name  on  them.  After 
the  papers  were  distributed,  the  student  was  asked  to  write  his  name  and 
date  on  each  of  the  slips,  and  also  to  number  them  consecutively.  After 
the  first  presentation  w^as  made  the  students  were  asked  to  write  the  letters 
on  the  top  slip.  This  was  torn  otif,  turned  face  downward  at  once  and  col- 
lected. The  letters  were  presented  again,  the  test  given  (the  second  slip 
being  used  for  that),  the  slip  torn  off,  turned  face  down  and  collected,  and 
so  on.  This  made  it  absolutely  certain  thai  the  student  difl  not  see  his 
former  paper,  but  it  wasted  time. 

The  folUnving  method  is  better  and  could  be  used  without  any  fear  of 
invalidating  the  results,  j)roviding  the  teacher  will  see  that  the  students  do 


120  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

as  they  are  told.  It  would  save  much  time.  The  regular  note  book  sheets 
could  be  used.  Have  each  student  write  his  name  and  date  at  the  top. 
Present  the  letters.  Then  ask  the  student  to  write  them.  After  they  have 
done  this,  instruct  them  to  fold  the  paper,  making  two  folds  at  the  top  so 
as  to  be  sure  they  cannot  look  at  what  has  been  written.  In  telling  them 
to  fold,  it  will  be  necessary  to  say  definitely  how  many  inches.  It  should 
be  3^2  inch,  at  least,  for  each  fold.  Then  give  another  presentation  and 
another  test  and  have  them  fold  over  the  paper  in  the  same  manner.  An- 
other advantage  of  this  method  would  be  that  all  the  work  of  one  student 
would  be  on  the  same  sheet  of  paper  and  comparison  of  individaul  work 
could  be  made  more  easily.  Of  course,  in  the  case  of  the  slips  torn  off, 
they  could  be  pasted  together  again  and  in  that  way  the  work  of  each 
student  would  be  assembled.  But  the  loss  of  time  in  collecting  papers  is 
the  objection  to  the  separate  slip  method. 

If  the  separate  slip  method  is  used,  time  could  be  saved  by  having  the 
sheets  numbered  in  series,  having  the  student  put  his  name  only  on  the 
first.  The  only  time  lost  then  would  be  in  collecting  and,  if  the  teacher  is 
a  good  manager,  that  might  be  done  quickly. 

It  is  suggested  that  the  first  lesson  be  conducted  as  the  particular  teach- 
er would  do  it  under  ordinary  circumstances.  After  whatever  introduction 
she  saw  fit  to  give,  she  might  proceed  somewhat  as  follows : 

"The  system  we  shall  learn  is  called  the  Benn  Pitman  (or  whatever  it 
ma}-  be)  system,  after  Benn  Pitman,  the  man  who  developed  it.  When 
you  started  writing  longhand,  down  in  the  early  grades,  the  first  thing  you 
had  to  do  was  to  learn  how  to  write  the  letters  of  the  alphabet.  That  is 
exactly  what  we  must  do.  You  will  remember  that  there  are  two  kinds  of 
letters,  consonants  and  vowels.    We  shall  learn  the  consonants  first. 

"Now,  the  Benn  Pitman  system  belongs  to  those  systems  which  are 
called  geometrical  systems  because  they  are  made  up  of  straight  lines  and 
curved  lines,  for  instance,  taking  a  circle,  we  cut  it  thus  (cut  it  into  cpiad- 
rants,  using  vertical  and  horizontal  diameters)  and  another  thus  (cut  it 
into  quadrants,  using  oblique  diameters).  Now  I  shall  give  you  some  of 
the  letters.  I  shall  give  you  eight  today.  The  first  one  is  this  straight 
line."  Point  to  it  in  the  cut  circle.  Then  write  it  separately  on  the  board 
where  all  can  see,  making  it  large,  and  saying,  "This  represents  the  sound 
of  the  letter  'p,'  and  is  called  "pu'  ( or  'pee',  whichever  method  is  in  use  in 
the  school  in  question)."  Then  pau.se  a  little  while  for  that  to  make 
its  impression,  but  do  not  repeat. 

"The  next  is  this  line,  ( t )."  Point  to  it  in  the  circle  and  make  it  on  the 
board,  saying,  as  you  make  it,  "It  represents  the  sound  of  the  letter  't' 
and  is  called  'tu'  ".    Say  this  very  forcefully  and  deliberately,  so  as  to  give 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  121 

it  the  greatest  possible  chance  of  penetrating.  In  this  way  proceed  with 
the  rest  of  the  first  eight  straight  Hnes.  Be  sure  to  show  the  connection 
between  the  heavy  and  hght  sounds  and  the  heavy  and  hght  marks.  When 
you  have  finished  the  last  one,  just  calmly  erase  all  that  you  have  ])ut  on 
the  board.  Then  ask  the  students  to  take  their  papers  and  pencils  and 
write  down  as  many  of  the  letters  you  name  as  they  can  remember.  Then 
call  them  oiT  to  the  students,  distinctly  and  slowly  enough  for  the  students 
to  get  them,  repeating  only  when  the  letter  has  not  been  heard.  Then  have 
the  papers  torn  off  and  placed  face  down  on  the  desk  and  have  them  col- 
lected. Or  if  the  second  method  is  used,  have  the  students  fold  down 
the  paper  twice.  Then  proceed  with  the  same  eight  letters  again,  putting 
each  shorthand  character  on  the  board,  telling  what  sound  it  represents 
and  giving  its  name  ;  then  erase  the  characters  quickly  and  have  the  stu- 
dents write  them  from  dictation.  It  might  be  advisable  to  give  the  first 
set  in  the  order  in  which  they  were  presented,  but  each  of  the  other  sets 
should  be  given  in  a  different  order.  For  the  second  test  the  following 
order  is  suggested:  ch,  k,  d.  p,  j,  b,  g,  t.  Collect  the  papers  or  fold  them 
over,  and  proceed  again  as  before.  Do  this  as  many  times  as  the  period  will 
permit.  Stop  long  enough  before  the  end  of  the  period  to  assign  home- 
work for  the  next  time. 

The  papers  should  be  marked,  and  record  made  as  follows : 

LETTERS  WHICH   EACH  STUDENT  FAILED 


1st 

2nd 

3rd 

4th 

5th 

presen- 

presen- 

presen- 

presen- 

presen- 

tation 

tation 

tation 

tation 

tation 

.John  Smith 

1 

-   \   / 

-   \   / 

I  -  / 

-/ 

-  / 

Geo.    Green 



— 

0 

0 

0 

Wm.  .Jones 

/ 

/-/- 

1  - 

Presenta- 
tions neces- 
sary before 

6th 

7th              8th 

9th 

10th 

student  got 

pres. 

pres.          pres 

pres. 

pres. 

aH  perfect 

John    Smith 

/ 

0                   0 

0 

0 

7 

Geo.    Green 

0 

0                     (» 

0 

0 

3 

W'm.    Jones 

0 

0                   0 

0 

0 

5 

3)15 
5 

This  record  will  show  the  teacher  first,  where  the  weakness  of  each  stu- 
dent is,  and  which  letters  need  most  emphasis.  It  may  reveal  something 
about  the  order  of  presentation.  It  may  show  that  the  last  letters  pre- 
sented are  the  ones  which  it  takes  longest  to  straighten  out.     It  may  show 


122  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

that  the  student  at  the  third  test  got  a  certain  letter  correct  but  failed  on 
it  in  the  4th  test,  etc.,  which,  of  course,  calls  for  an  explanation.  The  final 
column  should  then  be  added  and  the  average  found.  That  would  then 
show  how  many  times  it  had  to  be  presented  before  the  majority  of  the 
class  fixed  the  idea. 

(2)  Time  Limits. 

Date  for  beginning  experiment  should  be  definitely  given.  The  final 
date  will  depend  on  the  number  of  letters  in  the  alphabet  of  the  system  be- 
ing taught. 

(3)  Form,  Order  and  Method. 

The  paper  having  been  given  out,  and  the  names  of  the  students  and  the 
date  having  been  w-ritten  thereon,  the  teacher  can  proceed  with  the  les- 
son as  described  under  Detail  of  Procedure,  p.  118. 

(4)  Record  of  Interruptions,  etc. 

Careful  record  should  be  made  of  any  interruptions,  mis-steps,  etc.,  as 
mentioned  on  p.  59  tf. 

2.     Form. 

The  balance  of  the  outline  is  uniform  for  the  experiments  and  is  fully 
covered  in  ]).  62  iT. 

b.     SHORTHAND. 

Experiment  No.  2.    The  Number  of  Ideas  That  Can  be  Presented  in  a 
Lesson. 

I.     FORMULATION 
I.     Introduction. 

a.     General  Statement. 

This  experiment  somewhat  involves  the  preceding  one. 

The  whole  matter  of  preparing  a  lesson  involves  the  questions  of  how 
nnich  should  be  given  and  how  often  it  must  be  gone  over.  No  doubt,  the 
one  has  bearing  on  the  other.  If  we  give  the  student  too  much,  we  shall 
have  to  go  over  the  work  often,  and  if  we  give  him  only  a  very  small 
quantity,  we  may  not  have  to  go  over  it  often  at  all.  We  must,  however, 
try  to  find  how  each  of  these  stands  alone,  for  it  may  enable  us  the  better 
to  understand  the  combination.  This  experiment  tries  to  dwell  particular- 
ly on  one  feature — quantity. 


IX  CO^nrERCIAL  EDUCATION  123 

W  e  arc  reaching  the  time  when  efficiency  will  play  a  much  larger  pari  in 
•our  teaching  than  it  does  today.  To  be  efficient,  we  must  know  just  how 
much  to  exi)ect  from  the  students  and  retjture  all  of  that  from  them.  ( )ur 
commercial  teaching  should  he  in  such  shape  that  we  can  be  most  efficient 
in  it.  ]\Iore  things  are  crowding  into  the  commercial  ctu'riculum,  and.  if 
all  these  things  must  be  done  in  four  years  of  high  school,  we  must  do 
theiu  in  the  most  economical  w  av. 

in  l-jeginners'  Shorthand,  are  we  going  to  give  the  students  so  few  ideas 
at  a  time  that  they  will  absolutely  master  them  very  easily?  If  so,  it  will 
take  considerable  time  to  cover  certain  ground,  and  possibly  some  of  the 
class  will  lose  interest  in  the  subject  because  it  presents  no  problem  to  the 
active  mind.  Or,  shall  we  overload  the  students  with  so  many  ideas  that 
thev  cannot  begin  to  master  them,  which  will  in  the  end  mean  lost  time? 
Or,  are  we  going  to  give  the  students  just  enough  so  that  all  can  be  mas- 
tered and  quick  progress  can  be  made  at  the  same  time? 

To  he  sure,  we  are  dealing  with  the  individual  sttident  in  each  case,  and 
the  teacher  must,  in  the  last  resort,  decide  how  each  of  the  students  she  has 
before  her  is  cajiable  of  taking  a  lesson  and  then  base  her  assignment  upon 
that  jtidgment.  Rut  suppose  she  decides  that  most  of  her  class  are  very 
bright,  how  many  ideas  will  she  give  them  in  a  lesson  ?  She  has  nothing 
objective  to  use  as  a  standard,  unless  she  has  done  some  experimenting 
along  this  line  herself.  She  merely  guesses  at  it.  She  may  get  the  num- 
ber too  large  or  too  small,  in  either  case  the  efficiency  is  not  the  highest. 
We  ask  her  why  she  gives  a  certain  amount  and  she  answers,  "That  is 
what  John  Smith  gives."  He  may  be  a  man  of  good  judgment,  but  many 
people  may  disagree  with  the  statement  that  he  is  a  man  of  good  judgment, 
and  for  them  his  opinion  will  not  cotmt  for  anything.  She  may  say, 
"They  do  it  that  way  in  a  certain  high  school."  But  unless  that  high 
-school  has  looked  into  the  matter  scientifically,  that  mere  statement  does 
not  produce  any  scientific  data.  Consequently  most  of  the  teachers  are  at 
sea.  By  having  the  results  of  some  scientific  investigation  before  her,  this 
teacher  can,  at  least,  reason  in  this  way :  "The  average  student  in  the 
schools  tested  is  ])rogressing  w  iih  so  much  of  an  assignment.  Most  of  the 
schools  in  this  list  are  of  a  reputation  that  is  below  our  school.  There  are 
no  cases  noted  of  classes  of  very  bright  students.  My  students  are  very 
bright.  They  should  be  able  to  do.  at  least,  what  the  average  student  in 
these  other  schools  does.  1  shall  try  them  on  this  first.  If  this  works 
well,  I  can  increase  their  assignment  each  day,  till  I  tind  the  maxinumi 
amount  they  can  do." 

This  teacher  then  wotild  have  some  acttial  jjoint   from  which  to  start, 
^vhich  she  does  not  have  at  present.     Teachers  who  have  tried  out  this 


124  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

objective  scale  can  then  report,  or,  rather,  will  soon  be  interested  enough- 
to  express  opinions,  as  to  whether  the  matter  is  working  out  satisfactorily 
or  not.  If  not,  then  more  work  will  have  to  be  put  on  it,  until  the  scale 
does  prove  satisfactory. 

A  method  is  required  in  this  experiment  which  will  give  presentations  of 
an  increasing  number  of  ideas,  with  tests  to  check  up  how  the  ideas  be- 
come fixed.  We  need  not  start  at  one,  then  take  two,  and  so  on.  It  is 
safe  to  assume,  a  priori,  that  everyone  with  mental  equipment  can  absorb 
one  idea  in  a  lesson,  if  it  is  clearly  presented.  The  same  can  be  said  of 
two  ideas.  Yet  we  cannot  say  that  everyone  could  absorb  50  ideas  in  a 
lesson.  Somewhere  between  these  extremes  is  the  point  where  most  of 
our  present-day  students  reach  their  limit.  To  find  that,  if  we  can,  is  our 
problem. 

Again,  as  before,  we  shall  try  to  ascertain  what  the  situation  is  in  our 
schools  as  we  actually  find  it  today.  We  are  not  so  much  concerned  with 
W'hat  might  be  done  by  an  ideal  class  under  ideal  conditions.  We  do  not 
have  these  classes  in  our  schools  and  while  it  is  a  good  thing  to  know 
what  to  expect  under  ideal  conditions,  it  would  seem  to  be  of  much  more 
value  to  us  to  know  what  to  expect  under  present  conditions. 

There  should  be  a  pre-preliminary  test  on  this,  so  as  to  be  able  to  find 
the  lower  and  upper  limits,  so  that  the  test  itself  may  be  undertaken  with- 
out the  loss  of  unnecessary  experimentation. 

b.     Survey  of  Experiments  Made. 

No  experiments  have  been  found  that  take  up  the  matter  of  presenta- 
tions in  shorthand,  although  the  psychological  laboratories  have  under- 
taken experiments  on  presentations  in  general. 

2.     Specific  Statement. 

This  experiment  is  undertaken  to  try  to  deternfine  the  number  of  ideas 
that  can  be  presented  in  a  shorthand  lesson. 

II.     SELECTION  OF  LABORATORY 

I.     Groups  Chosen. 

So  far  as  the  pupils  selected  for  the  experiment  are  concerned,  it  is  sim- 
ply necessary  to  say  that  they  should  be  beginners  in  the  subject  of  short- 
hand.    I'here  is  likely  to  be  a  difference  in  the  work  of  the  older  ones  and 


I 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  125 

the  younger  ones.     Therefore,  the  record  should  contain  the  age  of  the 
pupil,  and  his  class. 

2.  Schools  Chosen. 

The  experiment  should  be  conducted  in  as  man}-  schools  as  possible. 
The  wider  the  range,  the  better  the  result  would  be.  It  should  be  under- 
taken with  the  Pitmanic  systems  as  well  as  the  Gregg  and  others. 

What  is  said  in  the  previous  experiment  on  p.  115  ff.  also  applies  here. 

b.  Accessibility. 

The  school  should  be  accessible  to  the  experimenter,  as  stated  on  p. 
36  ff. 

c.  Co-operation. 

There  should  be  co-operation  on  the  part  of  everyone,  as  explained  on 
p.  38  ff. 

3.  Teachers  Chosen. 

The  same  conditions  hold  as  in  the  preceding  experiment.     See  p.  41  ff. 

111.     CHOICE  OF  CONDUCTOR 

It  would  be  best,  if  possible,  for  the  experimenter  to  do  the  work  him- 
self. What  has  been  said  regarding  the  matter  in  the  preceding  experi- 
ment. J).   116,  also  applies  here. 

IV.     DEVELOPMENT  OF  A   PROCEDURE 

I.     Content. 

General  Plan. 

The  plan  to  be  followed  in  this  experiment  would  seem  to  require  giving 
the  students  a  certain  number  of  ideas  that  they  have  not  had  before.  The 
shorthand  alphabet  would  answer  the  purpose  nicely.  If  it  is  found  that 
the  students  readily  learn  the  number  that  has  been  given,  it  should  be  in- 
creased. 


126  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

a.     Difficulties. 

Pre-preliminary  Tests. 

Before  the  experimenter  can  proceed,  it  will  be  necessary  for  him  to 
ascertain  roughly,  at  least,  the  minimum  number  of  letters  that  can  be  i)re- 
sented  in  one  lesson.  He  may  have  to  decide  that  arbitrarily.  All  would 
agree  that  one  is  too  small  a  number.  All  would  also  agree  on  twc,  but 
somewhere  along  the  line  a  disagreement  would  take  place.  Therefore, 
some  pre-preliminary  tests  will  be  necessary  to  determine  the  minimum 
number  of  ideas  to  be  presented — in  this  case,  the  minimum  number  of 
letters. 

The  following  is  suggested  for  this  pre-preliminary  test,  and  the  experi- 
menter should  conduct  this  himself. 

The  work  should  be  tried  on  a  beginners'  class  in  shorthand. 

Some  number  must  arbitrarily  be  decided  upon,  as  the  number  of  letters 
to  use  in  the  lesson,  after  which  that  number  must  be  tried  out  to  see 
whether  or  not  it  works.  Let  us  take  8  letters.  Any  eight  would  do.  A 
Pitman  teacher  might  take  the  8  straight  stems. 

We  shall  follow  the  same  procedure  as  in  the  last  experiment,  that  is : 
present  the  letters  to  the  class  in  the  way  shown  and  then  ask  the  students 
to  reproduce  the  characters  from  dictation.  This  process  is  to  be  contin- 
ued as  long  as  the  period  lasts.  These  results  could  also  be  compared  to 
advantage  with  the  results  from  the  previous  experiment.  The  papers 
should  be  recorded  on  a  schedule  similar  to  the  one  used  in  the  last  ex- 
periment. 

Not  much  could  be  told  by  this  one  performance.  However,  it  would 
tell  by  the  number  of  presentations  necessary  before  the  majority  of  the 
iclass  fixed  the  ideas,  whether  eight  letters  are  too  few  or  too  many. 

At  the  next  lesson,  the  experimenter  should  give  the  class  a  test  on  what 
•was  given  them  the  last  time.  Just  one  test  is  to  be  given,  to  see  how  they 
have  retained  over  the  extended  period.  Then  he  may  proceed  with  the 
experiment  itself. 

Let  us  say  that  eight  was  found  to  be  too  small  a  number,  that  most 
of  the  class  had  mastered  these  in  a  small  number  of  presentations  and 
after  that  were  writing  them  correctly.  This  being  the  case,  we  might 
find  that  lo  did  not  make  much  dift'erence,  and,  since  the  number  of  char- 
acters in  our  alphabet  is  limited,  we  must  make  good  use  of  them.  There- 
fore, it  is  suggested  that  we  try  12  the  next  time.  After  12  have  been 
presented,  the  papers  should  again  be  marked  and  record  made  as  in  the 
former  lesson. 

Now  we  can  begin  to  make  some  comparisons.     Did  the  majority  of 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  127 

the  class  write  the  12  characters  correctly  after  the  early  presentations? 
If  so,  then  we  must  conclude,  it  would  seem,  that  12  is  too  small  a  num- 
ber. Possibly  then,  the  next  lesson  should  deal  with  15  or  16.  Let  us 
say  that  the  majority  of  the  class  retained  the  8  letters  in  six  presentations, 
and  the  majority  of  the  class  retained  the  12  letters  in  12  presentations. 
We  would  then  know  that  12  is  entirely  too  large  a  number  to  give  at  one 
time  and  the  next  lesson  would  better  be  confined  to  10. 

Furthermore,  we  should  consider  which  letters  caused  the  trouble.  Were 
they  among  the  first  six  presented  or  among  the  last  six?  Could  they  be 
confined  to  the  last  four  or  the  last  two?  If  there  is  a  consistent  failure 
on  the  last  two  letters,  could  we  assume  that  I2was  too  large  a  number 
and  that  10  would  more  nearly  come  within  the  ability  of  the  students? 
Or  do  we  find  that  the  letters  that  were  not  learned  well  are  mixed  and  do 
not  seem  to  follow  any  particular  order.  Do  our  findings  bear  out  the 
findings  of  the  psychological  laboratory  with  respect  to  retention? 

However,  the  next  test  should  be  made  with  10  letters,  presented  in  the 
same  way  as  in  the  former  ones.  The  papers  should  be  marked  and  the 
record  kept  just  as  in  the  other  case.  We  desire  to  know  whether  the  gain 
has  been  any  greater  than  with  the  12.  or  just  as  great  as  with  8.  Then 
we  would  say  that  10  is  the  proper  number  to  present  in  this  kind  of  short- 
hand lesson. 

Now  then,  let  us  say  that  the  experimenter  is  going  to  try  this  on  a  large 
scale,  so  large  that  individualities  need  not  be  considered.  Then  it  would 
be  well  for  him  to  give  one  set  of  experiments  in  certain  schools,  using  10 
letters  a  lesson  in  each  of  the  experiments,  vmtil  the  complete  alphabet  is 
used.  Another  year,  or  with  another  set  of  schools,  he  could  try  8  letters 
a  lesson;  w^ith  another  set,  or  another  year,  12  letters.  In  the  last  case, 
the  teachers  would  have  to  be  on  the  lookout  and  not  let  this  interfere 
with  the  efficiency  of  their  teaching.  It  would  only  affect  three  lessons, 
however,  and  the  damage  done  in  three  lessons,  if  12  letters  were  beyond 
the  reach  of  the  students,  could  easily  be  remedied. 

These  results  should  be  graphed  by  the  experimenter  and  they  would 
show  valuable  information.  On  a  large  scale  like  this,  even  though  the  8, 
10  and  12  were  not  tried  on  the  same  pupils,  the  results  would  be  valid 
because  individualities  have  been  balanced  by  large  numbers.  The  diffi- 
culty is  that  after  the  student  has  once  learned  the  alphabet,  we  cannot 
try  any  other  number  with  him,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  try  the  ex- 
periment on  an  altogether  different  set  of  students. 

In  this  experiment  we  should  keep  all  other  factors  alike,  except  the 
number  of  letters  presented.    That  is  the  factor  for  which  we  are  testing. 

(2)     Preliminary  conferences  may  be  necessary  in  order  to  get  the 


128  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

matter  clearly  before  the  teachers.  It  might  be,  however,  that  written  in- 
structions would  suffice.  It  would  depend  largely  on  how  clearly  they  can 
be  written  up. 

b.  Time. 

The  experiment  should  start  when  the  subject  of  shorthand  is  begun. 
In  order  that  the  interval  of  repetition  may  not  be  a  large  factor,  the  les- 
sons should  be  given  on  succeeding  days.  Since  the  alphabet  is  small,  it 
would  not  take  much  time  to  complete  the  experiment  at  the  rate  of  8  or 
more  letters  given  each  day. 

c.  Periods. 

The  work  should  take  place  during  a  period  when  the  students  are  not 
fatigued,  upset,  or  otherwise  incapable  of  serious  work.  The  report  should 
state  what  preceded,  at  least,  for  the  session,  and  should  state  at  what 
period  the  work  was  done.     See  p.  56  fif. 

d.  Subject-matter. 

The  subject-matter  will  be  the  alphabet  of  the  shorthand  system  taught 
in  the  school  where  the  experiment  is  made.  Sign-words  are  not  such 
good  material  because  there  are  more  interconnections  for  them  than  there 
are  for  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and  we  could  not  control  that  factor,  as 
some  students  make  good  use  of  interconnections  and  others  do  not. 

It  may  be  that  the  results  will  be  diiTerent  in  the  various  systems  of 
shorthand. 

e.  Details  of  Procedure. 

(i)  The  copies  of  instructions  should  clearly  state  the  method  of  the 
instruction  and  tests.  Similar  precautions  are  to  be  given  as  in  the  case 
of  the  preceding  experiment. 

(2)  Time  Limits. 

The  time  limits  should  be  stated  definitely.  The  length  of  the  experi- 
ment will  depend  on  the  shorthand  system  taught,  which  would  condition 
the  number  of  characters  to  be  presented. 

(3)  There  are  no  special  instructions  regarding  form,  order  and 
method.     See  p.  58  ft'. 

(4)  Interruptions  of  any  kind  might  be  a  very  disturbing  factor  and 
should  be  carefully  noted,  as  mentioned  on  p.  59  tf. 

2.     Form. 


I 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  129 

The  balance  of  the  outHne  apphes  uniformly  to  all  experiments  and  is 
covered  fully  on  p.  62  If. 

b.     SHORTHAND. 

Experiment  No.  3.     The  Proportion  of  Time  Spent  in  Reading  Back 
Shorthand  Notes  in  Class. 

I.     FORMULATION 
I.     Introduction. 

a.     General  Statement. 

In  the  statement  of  this  problem  we  come  to  another  of  the  practical 
questions  that  confront  the  teacher  of  shorthand.  Shall  we  have  the  stu- 
dents read  back  to  us  (and  that  is  the  only  way  of  being  sure  they  do  read 
it  back  )  all  the  shorthand  that  is  dictated?  It  would  be  a  good  thing  if  we 
had  the  time,  but  reading  back  is  such  slow  work  with  some  students  and 
it  would  not  leave  very  much  time  for  the  dictation  itself.  Of  course,  the 
students  could  be  told  to  read  back  their  day's  dictation  as  homework,  but 
conscientious  work  along  that  line  is  an  impossible  thing  to  check  up 
and  so  we  must  dismiss  that  idea  at  once.  There  is  a  real  problem  here 
for  the  teacher  of  shorthand.  The  students  must  be  able  to  read  their 
notes  quickly.  Without  practice  they  will  not  be  able  to  do  this  and  the 
teaching  is  a  failure. 

Time  docs  not  permit  having  them  read  back  all  of  their  notes  in  class 
and  still  receive  a  considerable  quantity  of  dictation.  If  we  give  it  to  them 
for  homework,  we  are  not  sure  that  they  are  doing  it,  and  we  have  a 
problem  that  we  must  try  to  work  out. 

Information  regarding  the  practice  of  other  teachers  in  this  regard  was 
desired  and  therefore  a  questionnaire  was  sent  to  a  list  of  high  school  teach- 
ers of  the  country.  The  question  read  as  follows :  "W' hat  proportion  of 
the  time  do  you  think  students  should  spend  on  reading  back  their  notes, 
i.  e.,  do  you  have  the  students  read  back  all  their  notes  ?  Do  you  use  half 
the  period  reading  back,  or  what  method  do  you  have  ?" 

The  following  information  has  been  tabulated  from  the  answers  re- 
ceived : 

Schools  requiring  that  all  the  notes  be  read  back  8 
Schools  that  read  back  i)ractically  everything.  .  .    7 

Various  methods  used i 

Read  back  as  much  as  possible 3 


130  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

Read  and  re-read   i 

Schools  using  1-3  of  period  reading  back  notes.  .  3 

Schools  using  ^  of  period 4 

Schools  using  ^4  o^  period i 

Considerable  difiference  of  opinion  exists,  as  will  be  noted. 

b.     Survey  of  Experiments  made. 

The  search  has  revealed  no  experiments  made  along  this  line. 


■-> 


Specific  Statement. 
This  experiment  is  undertaken  with  the  purpose  of  trying  to  decide  what 
proportion  of  the  time  in  class  should  be  spent  in  reading  back  shorthand 
notes. 

II.     SELECTION  OF  LABORATORY 


/ 


1.  Groups  Chosen. 

The  pupils  on  whom  this  experiment  is  to  be  tried  should  be  advanced 
students  in  shorthand — students  who  are  taking  dictation. 

Two  sections  of  each  group  will  be  needed,  and  some  equalization  test 
will  have  to  be  found  for  determining  the  sections. 

We  desire  to  ascertain  what  procedure  we  should  follow  with  classes 
as  we  find  them  today,  and  therefore,  we  shall  not  exclude  any  students 
except  such  as  necessary  in  order  to  equalize  the  sections. 

2.  Schools  Chosen. 

a.  General  Character  of  Student-body. 

In  this  experiment  we  would  like  records  from  as  many  schools  and  as 
many  different  types  of  schools  as  possible.  A  statement  should  accom- 
pany the  report  of  each  school,  giving  some  information  regarding  the 
type  of  students  tested. 

b.  Accessibilitv. 

The  schools  should  be  accessible  to  the  experimenter  as  explained  on 
p.  36  fif. 

c.  Co-operation. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  131 

The  necessary  co-operation  of  all  concerned  should  exist  as  explained 
on  ]x  T,^  tf. 

3.     Teachers  Chosen. 

The  teachers  chosen  should  he  sufficiently  intelligent  to  undertake  the 
work  and  should  have  the  proper  attitude  of  mind,  as  explained  on  p. 
41   ff. 

III.     CHOICE  OF   CONDUCTOR 

I.  The  regular  teacher  would  seem  to  be  the  one  best  suited  to  take 
charge  of  the  class.  The  students  are  accustomed  to  her  and  would  not 
be  disturbed  as  they  would  be  by  bringing  in  an  outsider  for  the  work. 

One  teacher,  however,  should  have  charge  of  both  sections,  to  avoid 
variation  in  personality. 

See  p.  44  ft.  regarding  choice  of  conductor. 

IV.     DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  PROCEDURE 
I .     Content. 

a.     Difficulties. 

( I )      Pre-preliminary  tests. 

Our  difficulties  seem  to  be  these  : 

If  we  devote  less  time  to  dictation,  it  will  be  more  difficult  to  acquire 
the  speed  necessary  for  the  students.  If  we  devote  more  time  to  reading, 
they  should  be  able  to  read  more  rapidly. 

And  vice  versa. 

We  have  two  varying  factors  in  the  consideration.  \\'e  must  make  one 
of  them  constant  and  permit  the  other  to  vary. 

It  would  seem  logical  to  make  the  dictation  factor  constant  and  let  the 
reading  factor  vary.     But  how  can  we  accomplish  this? 

If  we  had  a  norm  or  scale  in  shorthand,  showing  the  amount  of  speed 
that  should  be  gained  each  month,  etc.,  it  would  solve  our  problem  quickly. 
In  the  absence  of  such  a  scale  it  will  become  necessary  to  arbitrarily  set 
a  certain  number  of  words  of  dictation  per  minute,  as  the  increase  in  the 
writing  ability  of  the  students  for  say  one  month.  The  dictation  given  to 
both  sections  is  to  have  that  objecti\e  in  mind.  The  dictation  should  be 
given  at  the  same  rate  to  both  sections.     One  section,  however,  devotes 


132  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

more  time  to  reading  back  than  the  other,  which  means,  of  course,  that  it 
devotes  less  time  to  taking  dictation.  The  test  at  the  end  of  the  month  is 
to  ascertain  which  section  can  best  read  its  notes,  taken  at  the  required 
speed  for  that  month. 

To  find  out  which  section  can  best  "read  its  notes"  we  could  use  either 
of  the  two  methods  following: 

The  most  accurate  but  least  practical  method  (because  it  takes  too  much 
time  of  the  teacher)  would  be  to  have  the  students  read  back  their  notes 
privately  to  the  teacher,  the  teacher  having  stop  watch  in  hand  and  noting 
the  time  required  to  do  the  reading. 

A  less  accurate  method  would  be  to  have  the  students  transcribe  their 
notes  on  the  typewriter.  This  would  not  be  purely  a  reading  test.  It 
would  also  involve  a  person's  ability  to  typewrite  quickly.  If  this  method 
is  used,  the  result  would  have  to  be  expressed  in  a  ratio  representing  the 
person's  speed  on  the  typewriter  while  transcribing  his  notes.  His  speed 
in  copying  from  a  printed  page  w^ill  usually  be  considerably  greater  than 
his  ability  to  copy  shorthand  notes — at  least  it  would  be  so  with  advanced 
students.  It  is  his  inability  to  read  his  notes  more  quickly  that  hinders 
him  from  attaining  the  same  speed  in  transcription  as  in  copying  printed 
matter.  Three  lo-minute  speed  tests  from  copy  matter,  using  Interna- 
tional Typewriting  Contest  Rules,  ought  to  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  student's 
absolute  speed  on  the  machine.  (See  Typewriting  Experiment  No.  i, 
page  71.  for  further  details  on  conducting  such  tests.)  Three  letters  of 
say  100  words  each,  taken  at  the  designated  speed  for  the  month,  and 
transcribed  just  as  fast  as  the  student  can  do  so,  ought  to  give  a  fair  idea 
of  his  transcription  speed.  The  average  of  the  three  in  each  of  these  cases, 
should  be  taken.  In  the  transcription  tests  we  should  not  count  typogra- 
phical nor  mere  spelling  errors  (except  where  the  spelling  indicates  that 
the  student  did  not  read  aright)  and  the  student  should  be  so  told.  If  we 
divest  the  tests  of  all  these  things,  we  will  more  nearly  approach  the  stu- 
dent's real  reading  ability. 

There  should  be  an  EQUALIZATION  TEST  at  the  beginning  of  the 
experiment,  based  on  reading  ability  at  a  given  speed  in  dictation.  The 
sections  should  be  formed  on  the  results  of  this  test. 

If  the  students  are  to  read  back  their  notes  orally  to  the  teacher  in  pri- 
vate, she  will  take  the  time  required  by  means  of  a  stop  watch  and  note 
the  speed  of  reading  each  of  the  three  letters.  The  average  we  shall  call 
the  student's  reading  speed,  and  from  this  we  shall  make  up  the  sections. 
The  dictation  would  all  have  to  be  given  at  one  time,  and  the  students 
w'ould  be  required  to  put  their  notes  out  of  sight  until  their  turn  came. 
How  disturbing  an  element  the  wait  would  be  for  the  last  ones  called  up. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  133 

is  hard  to  tell.  A  pre-preliminary  test  along  that  line  should  shed  some 
light  on  that  point.  The  waiting-period  would  he  shortened  if  several 
teachers  could  hear  the  reading. 

If  the  students  are  to  transcribe  their  notes,  we  shall  have  to  form  the 
sections  on  the  basis  of  the  ratio  of  the  transcription  speed  to  their  copying 
speed. 

It  w  t)uld  prove  interesting  to  ascertain  whether  the  sections  would  be 
made  up  just  the  same,  no  matter  which  method  were  used.  A  pre-limi- 
nary  test  should  be  conducted  to  determine  this. 

The  FINAL  TESTS,  given  at  the  end  of  the  prescribed  time,  would 
have  to  be  taken  in  the  same  way,  and  scored  accordingly.  In  the  case  of 
the  transcription  basis,  the  average  speed  in  copying  printed  matter  should 
again  be  obtained,  and  this  figure  used  in  the  ratio.  The  student  has  had 
time  to  increase  his  absokite  speed  and  the  ratio  would  not  be  correct  if  the 
equalization  test  speed  were  taken. 

In  the  case  of  the  oral  reading,  we  would  have  to  get  some  sort  of  mark- 
ing basis  for  judging.  Possibly  the  easiest  way  would  be  to  use  the  num- 
ber of  words  read  per  minute  minus  a  certain  penalt\-  for  each  word  in- 
correctly read.  In  typewriting,  according  to  the  International  Typewrit- 
ing Contest  Rules,  10  points  are  deducted  for  each  word  wrongly  written. 
Would  10  be  too  great  a  deduction  for  each  word  incorrectly  read,  the 
basis  being  the  reading  of  roo  words?  Correctness  is  an  essential  in  the 
reading,  and  possibly  we  cannot  penalize  too  heavily  for  it  because  of  its 
importance. 

To  illustrate,  the  proposition  would  work  out  in  this  way  on  the  above 
basis.  John  Jones  is  in  the  A  section.  The  A  section  is  taking  dictation 
for  half  the  time  and  reading  back  half  the  time.  In  the  e([ualization  test 
John  Jones  receives  90,  let  us  suppose  (  he  read  orally  to  the  teacher  at 
the  rate  of  100  words  per  minute  bitt  made  one  mistake,  for  which  we 
have  penalized  him  10  points).  In  the  final  test  John  Jones  makes  120. 
(He  read  back  at  the  rate  of  120  words  per  minute  with  no  errors). 
William  Snnth  is  in  the  B  section.  The  B  section  is  taking  dictation  for 
three  quarters  of  the  time  and  reading  back  for  one  cpiarter  of  the  time. 
In  the  Equalization  test  William  Snnth  gets  90,  let  us  say,  reading  at  the 
rate  of  100  words  per  minute  with  one  word  wrong,  a  penalty  of  10,  leav- 
ing 90.  John  Jones  and  \\  illiam  Snfith  were  on  the  same  basis  at  the 
start.  In  the  final  test,  however,  William  Smith  gets  80,  let  us  say,  for  an 
average.  100  words  and  2  errors,  making  a  penalty  of  20.  As  the  matter 
stands  John  Jones  now  gets  120  ond  William  Snfith  80.  whereas  they  were 
both  at  the  same  starting  point.  Would  it  be  a  valid  assumption  to  say 
that  the  one  section,  the  B  section,  is  not  getting  enough  reading  practice, 


134  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

if  the  records  of  the  rest  of  the  class  ran  in  about  the  same  way?  It  would 
seem  so. 

To  illustrate  the  other  basis  of  forming  the  sections :  We  find  that  the 
average  of  Jack  Green  for  his  three  speed  tests  in  copying  from  printed 
matter,  is  40  gross  words  per  minute.  We  find  that  his  average  for 
transcribing  three  100-word  letters  is  20  words  per  minute,  allowance  hav- 
ing been  made  for  all  errors  which  are  not  strictly  reading  errors,  and  a 
penalty  of  10  being  imposed  for  each  error  that  is  a  reading  error.  We 
shall  say  that  his  beginning  speed  is  20:40  (or  20/40).  Jack  Green  is  put 
into  the  A  section.  Dan  W^ilson,  who  has  the  same  average,  20  140,  is  put 
into  the  B  section  to  balance  matters.  The  A  section  reads  half  the  time 
and  takes  dictation  the  other  half.  Jack  Green's  final  average  is  30:42. 
The  B  section  takes  dictation  three  quarters  of  the  time  and  reads  back 
the  other  quarter.  Dan  Wilson's  average  for  the  final  is  19:43.  These 
records  are  typical  of  the  respective  sections,  let  us  say.  Are  we  justified 
in  saying  that  the  half  and  half  distribution  of  time  is  better  than  the  one 
quarter  and  three  quarters  ? 

Before  this  experiment  is  tried  on  a  large  scale,  a  number  of  pre-pre- 
liminary  tests  should  be  made  to  try  out  the  several  factors  that  enter 
into  it. 

In  the  first  place,  we  ought  to  try  out  the  division  of  the  periods,  that 
is,  half  and  half,  three  quarters  and  one  quarter,  and  any  other  combina- 
tions that  we  may  think  appropriate.  There  may  be  a  number  of  reasons 
why  any  one  of  these  cannot  be  worked  from  the  practical  standpoint. 
Certain  combinations  would  require  the  re-reading  of  certain  notes  too 
often,  as  for  instance  where  the  dictation  period  is  short  and  the  reading 
period  long.  Memorization  may  take  place  and  no  reading,  after  the  first 
time  a  letter  is  read  back.  On  the  other  hand,  it  nfight  be  found  that  with 
some  classes,  if  things  were  reversed,  too  much  time  would  be  given  for 
dictation  and  not  enough  for  reading,  to  cover  any  ground  worth  mention- 
ing. Classes  dififer  so  much  in  their  make-up  and  ability  that  some  sur- 
prises may  be  presented  to  us.  After  we  have  found  a  division  of  time  that 
works,  it  could  be  used  as  the  basis  for  the  experiment  on  a  large  scale. 

The  viewpoint  is  being  taken  that  if  measured  by  time,  the  experiment 
would  be  easier  and  more  accurate  and  practical  than  if  we  measured  the 
amount  of  work  done,  which  would  often  be  very  difficult  and  might  not 
be  very  accurate. 

It  would  seem  better  to  plan  the  experiment  upon  a  time  basis  rather 
than  a  quantity  basis,  for  it  would  be  far  easier  to  keep  account  of  one 
than  the  other,  and  it  would  lessen  the  opportunity  for  another  varying 
element  to  creep  in. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  135 

Another  pre-preliininary  test  should  be  made  to  determine  whether  or 
not  we  can  actually  make  an  equalization  of  sections  on  the  ratio  basis, 
such  as  20 :40,  etc. 

There  should  be  no  trouble  in  obtaining  the  oral  reading  speed  of  a  stu- 
dent. It  has  often  been  done  and  some  teachers  in  fact,  take  that  into 
consideration  when  making  up  the  shorthand  mark  for  the  month. 

A  pre-preliminary  experiment  ought  to  be  made  before  trying  it  on  a 
large  scale,  because  there  are  several  elments  in  it  that  seem  sound  in 
theory  but  which  might  be  badly  upset  by  actual  trial.  Some  that  have 
seemed  more  sound  than  these,  have  been  upset  and  consequently  even 
many  of  the  simplest  operations  should  actually  be  tried  out. 

(2)  Preliminary  conferences.  While  the  procedure  of  this  experi- 
ment is  rather  large  in  detail,  nevertheless  it  is  not  exceedingly  compli- 
cated. A  teacher  of  ordinary  intelligence  should  be  able  to  handle  it  from 
written  instructions.  If  it  is  found,  however,  that  this  does  not  work,  the 
experimenter  will  have  to  resort  to  personal  conferences  with  those  con- 
cerned. 

See  also  p.  51  ff  regarding  this. 

b.  Time. 

This  experiment  could  be  conducted  during  any  time  of  the  year  when 
the  advanced  stenographic  students  are  available.  It  is  not  the  intention 
to  upset  school  schedules,  and  therefore,  the  classes  would  meet  on  the 
regular  days  for  the  subject.  In  most  schools  advanced  students  in  .short- 
hand take  the  subject  every  day. 

A  decision  will  have  to  be  made  as  to  whether  the  experiment  is  to  con- 
tinue one  month  or  longer. 

Dates  for  equalization  and  final  tests  will  have  to  be  set. 

c.  Periods. 

The  sections  would  most  likely  meet  at  their  regular  periods.  It  will 
be  necessary  to  change  the  schedule  to  make  it  possible  for  the  one  teacher 
to  have  both  sections. 

A  record  should  be  made  as  to  the  programme  of  the  students  for  the 
preceding  part  of  the  session,  at  least,  as  a  help  in  trying  to  account  for 
differences.     See  also  p.  56  ff. 

d.  Subject-matter. 

The  subject-matter  would  be  the  regular  shorthand  dictation  work  of 


136  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

the  class.  For  the  typewriting  speed  tests  from  copy  matter,  any  of  the 
material  used  for  the  International  Typewriting  Contests,  would  do.  The 
same  matter  should  be  used  in  all  three  final  tests.  The  letters  dictatecS 
for  transcription  or  oral  reading  should  be  ordinary  business  letters,  oi 
about  the  same  degree  of  difficulty  and  should  be  devoid  of  technical 
terms.  The  identical  letters  should  be  used  in  both  sections,  in  the  tests, 
and  also  in  practice  work,  as  far  as  possible.  ( It  will  not  be  absolutely 
possible  in  practice  work  because  one  section  gets  more  dictation  than  the 
other,  unless  we  confine  ourselves  to  certain  letters,  and  require  the  one 
section  to  use  up  their  surplus  time  in  going  over  those  as  often  as  neces- 
sary to  use  up  the  time. ) 

e.     Details  of  Procedure. 

(i)  The  instructions  should  be  written  out  very  carefully,  so  that  the 
assistants  may  have  no  difficulty  in  understanding  the  matter.  Students 
should  be  instructed  that  there  is  to  be  no  reading  of  shorthand  notes  out- 
side of  class. 

(2)  The  instructions  should  state  when  the  experiment  will  begin  and 
end,  and  when  the  tests  are  to  be  given. 

(3)  No  particular  form,  order,  or  method  of  giving  directions  to  the 
students  is  necessary. 

(4)  An  accurate  record  is  to  be  kept  of  all  interruptions,  etc.,  as  ex- 
plained on  p.  59  fi. 

2.     Form. 

The  balance  of  the  outline  applies  uniformly  to  all  ex])eriments  and  is 
covered  fully  on  p.  62  fif. 

b.     SHORTHAND. 

Experiment  No.  4.     Intervals  of  Repetition. 

I.     FORMULATION 
I.     Introduction. 

a.     General  Statement. 

Another  practical  question  that  concerns  shorthand  teachers,  especially 
those  who  have  anything  to  do  with  the  arranging  of  a  schedule,  is  the 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  137 

folluwing-;  "llow  often  should  the  various  classes  meet  in  order  to  pro- 
duce the  best  results?" 

Psychology  tells  us  that  an  idea  will  remain  with  us  for  a  certain  time. 
Before  the  expiration  of  that  i)eriod  it  can  be  recalled  but  after  the  expira- 
tion of  that  period,  recall  no  longer  is  possible  and  then  it  requires  re- 
learning.     What  is  the  period  for  shorthand  as  it  is  now  taught? 

We  have  this  situation:  Possibly  the  majorit}-  of  the  teachers  believe  it 
would  be  best  if  we  could  have  shorthand  every  day.  But  that  is  impossi- 
ble in  many  schools  for  various  reasons.  Then  a  choice  must  be  made  be- 
tween twice  or  three  times  a  week  for  the  subject.  Are  we  agreed  to 
say  that  three  times  a  week  means  just  three-fifths  of  the  efficiency  that 
could  be  secured  from  five  times  a  week?  Or  that  twice  a  week  means  two- 
fifths  of  the  efficiency?  It  would  be  interesting,  if  not  instructive,  to  have 
some  data  on  this.  The  present  experiment  tries  to  present  a  method  for 
obtaining  information  on  the  relative  merits  of  these  methods. 

b.     Survey  of  Experiments  Made. 

The  search  has  revealed  no  experiments  made  in  shorthand  to  determine 
the  interval  of  repetition,  although  a  number  of  experiments  have  been 
made  in  psychological  laboratories  to  determine  the  interval  of  repetition 
in  general. 

d.     Specific  Statement. 

This  experiment  is  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  trying  to  determine 
the  relative  effects  of  various  intervals  of  repetition  in  shorthand. 

II.     SELECTION  OF  A  LABORATORY 

1.  Croups  Chusen. 

h'or  this  experiment  it  is  suggested  that  beginners  in  shorthand  be  used, 
and  since  it  is  desired  to  find  out  how  the  matter  works  imder  actual  con- 
ditions, all  beginners  could  be  admitted  into  the  experiment. 

2.  Schools  Chosen. 

a.     Genera!  Character  of  .Student-body. 
The  investigation  should  be  undertaken  in  as  many  schools  as  possible. 


138  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

b.  Accessibility. 

The  schools  should  be  accessible  to  the  experimenter,  as  explained  on  p. 
36  ff. 

c.  Co-operation. 

The  necessary  co-operation  of  all  concerned  should  be  assured,  as  per  p. 
38  ff. 

3.     Teachers  Chosen. 

The  teacher  in  charge  should  be  intelligent  enough  to  handle  the  work. 
She  should  also  have  the  proper  attitude  and  interest,  as  explained  on  p. 
41  ff. 

III.     CHOICE  OF  CONDUCTOR 

The  teacher  will  most  likely  be  the  one  chosen  for  the  work,  although 
anvone  having  the  necessary  qualifications  could  do  it  without  injecting  a 
disturbing  element.  The  experiment  will  be  conducted  at  the  beginning  of 
the  subject,  before  the  students  have  had  an  opportunty  to  become  accus- 
tomed to  any  one  teacher. 

See  also  p.  44  ft',  regarding  this. 

IV.     DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  PROCEDURE 

I .     Content. 

General  Plan  in  Brief. 

It  would  seem  that  the  best  wS'y  of  obtaining  our  information  is  to  have 
three  sections,  each  being  taught  by  the  same  teacher — one  section  receiv- 
ing shorthand  five  times  a  week  (Monday,  Tuesday,  Wednesday,  Thurs- 
day, and  Friday),  another  three  times  a  week  (Monday,  Wednesday  and 
Thursday)  and  the  third  section  twice  a  week  (say  jNIonday  and  Thurs- 
day or  Tuesday  and  Friday).  We  w^ould  map  out  a  certain  amount  of  the 
ground  to  be  covered,  working  it  out  definitely  by  lessons.  After  a  cer- 
tain number  of  lessons,  each  section  will  be  tested  and  the  results  of  this 
test  will  be  the  basis  of  our  judgment.  The  plan  requires  that  the  teacher 
give   the   same   lesson  to   each   section   and   cover   the   same   amount   of 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  139 

ground  in  each  Icssnn.  She  may  hnd  that  she  cannot  cover  the  ground 
with  one  or  two  sections.  If  the  sections  had  actually  been  equalized  at 
tht  start,  the  trouble  must  be  due  to  the  interval — too  much  forgotten 
from  last  recitation  that  must  be  reviewed  each  time.  It  would  seem  wise 
in  that  event  to  take  the  section  as  fast  as  possible  over  the  work,  but 
no  faster  than  the  pupils  can  stand  it,  and  then  compare  the  ground  covered 
at  th:'  expiration  of  the  assigned  number  of  lessons. 

I  f  a  school  can  have  only  two  sections,  it  would  be  better  to  have  it 
tried  on  two  than  not  at  all. 

An  equalization  test  should  be  devised  because  of  the  many  factors 
that  constitute  shorthand  ability.  In  the  absence  of  such  a  test,  large 
numbers  will  have  to  be  used  to  eliminate  individualities. 

The  detailed  instructions  covering  the  procedure  in  the  class  room  should 
be  written.     The  essential  things  are : 

1.  That  all  sections  should  have  the  same  teacher  so  that  there 

is  no  varying  factor  in  that  respect. 

2.  That  she  should  give  the  lesson  to  each  section  in  as  nearly  the 

san:e  manner  as  it  is  possible  to  give  the  same  lesson  to  two 
different  groups.  We  do  not  want  any  varying  factor  in  the 
way  the  lessons  are  given  nor  in  the  quantity  given  at  a  lesson. 

This  leaves  the  teacher  free  to  choose  the  method  she  thinks  will  best 
•enable  her  to  teach  the  class  effectively. 

Naturally,  the  section  having  the  lessons  five  times  a  week  will  reach 
the  goal  much  sooner  than  the  others.  At  the  time  it  does,  it  should  be 
tested  and  the  same  thing  should  be  done  with  each  of  the  other  sections. 
A  .school  system  may  not  feel  like  trying  an  experiment  of  this  kind  for  a 
whole  year.  In  that  case  a  shorter  period  should  be  chosen  and  the  sec- 
tions re-united.  This  may  also  be  done  where  a  teacher  may  be  willing  to 
carry  the  extra  burden  for  the  time,  but  could  not  do  it  for  a  year.  It 
would  not  be  very  hard  work  to  equalize  the  sections  so  that  they  can  be 
carried  on  as  one  class  thereafter. 

It  has  been  said  that  a  teacher  could  use  her  own  methods  in  the  class 
room.  This  is  true,  but  at  the  same  time  the  teacher  should  keep  a  record 
of  her  lesson  plan  so  that  in  case  the  data  is  needed  when  the  comparison 
is  made,  to  shed  light  on  any  point,  it  will  be  available. 

a.     Difficulties. 

Final  test. 


I40  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

The  final  test  will  consist  of  a  fair  examination  on  the  essential  points 
covered  up  to  that  time.  And  these  should  be  minimimi  essentials.  The 
experimenter  should  be  very  careful  to  give  a  test  that  really  tests  the 
thing  we  are  after,  namely  the  student's  grasp  on  shorthand.  For  in- 
stance, if  it  had  been  decided  that  the  stopping  point  should  be  after  the 
alphabet,  circles,  and  loops  had  been  learned,  in  the  Pitman  systems,  then 
the  student  should  be  expected  to  know  the  alphabet ;  to  know  what  the 
circles  and  loops  represent ;  when  to  use  the  circles  and  loops,  and  when 
to  use  the  stems;  how  to  use  them  in  connection  with  stems,  i.  e.,  where 
to  place  them  on  straight  stems  and  where  on  curved  stems.  That  would 
cover  the  minimum  essentials  and  would  seem  to  be  a  fair  examination  to 
test  the  attainment  of  the  students  to  that  point. 

The  results  should  be  tabulated  for  each  section,  graphed,  and  compared.. 

They  should  also  be  compared  with  the  results  from  other  schools. 

It  may  be  that  a  teacher  cannot  cover  the  same  work  with  all  the  sec- 
tions. If  that  is  so,  a  note  should  be  made  of  it.  It  wotild  help  in  de- 
termining the  value  of  several  intervals.  It  would  indicate  that  the  inter- 
val was  too  long  and  too  much  work  had  to  be  re-learned. 

b.  Time. 

The  dates  of  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  experiment  should  be  defi- 
nitely set,  and  of  course,  it  will  be  decided  on  what  days  of  the  week  the 
sections  will  meet. 

c.  Periods. 

The  periods  should  be  so  arranged  that  none  of  the  sections  will  be  at  a 
disadvantage  from  fatigue  or  any  other  reason.      See  p.  56  ff. 

d.  Subject-matter. 

The  subject-matter  will  be  the  regular  shorthand  work  of  the  school 
where  the  test  is  given.  It  will  cover  a  certain  portion  of  the  subject  like, 
for  instance,  the  alphabet,  or  the  alphabet,  circles,  loops,  etc.  The  final 
test  is  to  be  given  on  the  subject-matter  covered  and  should  be  for  mini- 
mum essentials  only. 

e.  Details  of  Procedure. 

No  special  instructions  are  necessary. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  141 

A  record  should  be  kept  of  all  attendant  circumstances,  such  as  inter- 
ruptions, weather,  etc.     See  p.  59  ff. 

2.     Form. 

The  balance  of  the  outline  applies  uniformly  to  all  experiments  and  is 
covered  fully  on  p.  62  ft". 

b.     SHORTHAND. 

Experiment  No.  5.    A  Method  of  Predetermining  Those  Unfit  for  High 
Speed  in  Shorthand. 

I.     FORMULATION 
I.     Introduction. 

a.     General  Statement. 

The  object  of  this  experiment  is  to  help  those  schools  which  have  a 
very  high  rate  of  speed  in  shorthand,  as  a  requirement  for  graduation. 

It  is  common  knowledge  that  the  average  business  man  does  not  dictate 
rapidly,  that  his  thoughts  do  not  come  to  him  quickly  and  that,  therefore, 
in  order  to  be  of  service  in  the  business  world,  one  does  not  absolutely  re- 
quire a  speed  of  100  words  per  minute. 

In  this  experiment  it  is  not  the  purpose  to  determine  whether  or  not 
a  person  is  unfit  for  a  position  as  a  stenographer.  Any  one  of  ordinary 
mentality,  it  would  seem,  ought  to  be  able  to  acquire  enough  mastery  of 
the  principles  of  a  shorthand  system,  to  be  able  to  take  shorthand  dictation 
fast  enough  so  that  he  could  do  the  work  for  the  slowest  dictator  in  the 
business  world.  Therefore,  let  us  assume  that  every  shorthand  writer  will 
be  of  some  use  to  the  business  world,  even  though  he  may  not  be  able  to 
earn  more  than  the  minimum.  But  our  schools  are  not  satisfied  to  prepare 
students  for  the  undesirable  positions  and,  therefore,  they  have  set  a  high 
standard  for  graduation,  in  many  cases  making  it  100  or  125  words  per 
minute. 

It  is  to  help  decide  beforehand,  whether  or  not  a  person  is  capable  of 
reaching  this  speed,  that  this  experiment  is  undertaken.  We  would  like  to 
know,  say,  when  a  person  begins  to  study  shorthand,  whether  or  not  he 
will  be  able,  so  far  as  mental  or  psychologic  equipment  is  concerned,  to 
meet  the  requirements  for  graduation.  Not  that  a  person  after  reaching 
80  words  per  minute  finds  that  this  is  his  limit  and  after  spending  two  or 


142  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

three  years  on  the  subject,  finds  that  he  cannot  graduate  in  that  course  and 
must  go  out  and  seek  a  position  without  graduation.  The  person  might 
have  been  able  to  equip  himself  for  other  work  without  the  loss  of  time 
entailed,  if  he  could  have  known  sooner,  that  he  could  never  reach  the  re- 
quired speed  of  lOO  words  per  minute. 

This  would  seem  to  be  a  question  of  psychology  rather  than  a  question 
of  methods  of  teaching,  and  therefore  some  psychologic  test  would  seem 
to  be  the  thing  required. 

If  there  is  such  a  thing  as  a  slow  re-action  to  stimuli  and  this  slow  re- 
action is  constantly  uniform  to  all  kinds  of  stimuli,  it  would  be  fair  to 
assume  that  a  test  of  any  kind  that  would  give  the  time  necessary  for  the 
re-action,  would  be  a  proper  basis  for  judging  the  re-action  in  the  case 
of  the  dictation  and  taking  it  down  in  shorthand. 

There  mav,  however,  be  some  varving  factors,  of  which  we  know  noth- 
ing,  in  this  connection,  and  it  would  be  better,  therefore,  to  get  as  near 
the  actual  situation  under  consideration  as  possible — to  take  something 
that  is  actually  shorthand  work,  actually  dictation,  if  such  a  thing  can  be 
found. 

Shorthand  work  is  out  of  the  question,  because  by  the  time  the  person 
is  able  to  take  it,  he  is  very  near  the  end  of  his  course,  and  we  desire  to 
1<now  the  possibilities  of  a  student  at  the  time  he  wishes  to  take  up  the 
study  of  shorthand.  Furthermore,  the  slow  re-acticn  in  the  case  of  writ- 
ing shorthand  may  be  due  to  other  factors  than  a  natural  slow  re-action. 
It  may  be  due  to  not  knowing  the  shorthand  outline  well  enough,  through 
non-application,  etc. 

Longhand  dictation  is  therefore  suggested.  The  essential  thing  is  to 
Tiave  something  with  which  the  student  is  absolutely  familiar,  so  that  there 
may  be  no  possibility  of  any  hesitation  on  his  part  because  he  does  not 
know  the  thing  we  want  him  to  write.  We  desire  to  time  his  re-action  to 
something  he  knows  perfectly  well. 

Every  student  entering  the  high  school  should  know  the  longhand  al- 
phabet. There  would  be  no  question  on  this  score.  Therefore  the  alpha- 
bet could  be  taken  as  material  for  the  test. 

We  could  approach  more  closely  the  actual  situation  in  taking  shorthand 
dictation,  if  we  were  to  use  a  sentence  containing  words  which  should 
cause  no  hesitation  on  the  part  of  any  high  school  pupil ;  for  instance, 
"The  book  was  on  the  table  in  the  other  room." 

The  test  will  have  to  be  undertaken  individually  or  else  there  will  have 
to  be  as  many  teachers  as  pupils.  Of  course,  the  first  plan  is  more  prac- 
tical. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  143 

b.     Survey  of  Experiments  Made. 
The  Search  has  revealed  no  experiments  along  this  hne. 
2.     Specific  Statement. 

This  experiment  is  undertaken  to  try  to  find  a  method  by  which  we  can 
predetermine  those  who,  because  of  their  psychological  make-u]),  are  unfit 
for  high  speed  in  shorthand. 

II.     SELECTION  OF  LABORATORY 

I.     Groups  Chosen. 

The  test  outlined  is  to  be  given  to  all  pupils  who  are  entering  the  short- 
hand classes,  and  is  to  be  given  as  early  as  possible  after  entrance,  or  pos- 
sibly before,  if  that  can  be  arranged. 

The  reason  for  doing  it  early  is  so  that,  if  the  child  does  not  measure  up, 
he  can  be  so  told,  and  he  will  have  an  opportunity  to  change  to  another 
subject  if  he  desires. 

(The  object  is  not  to  i:)rohibit  the  student  from  taking  shorthand,  but 
to  tell  him,  that,  as  far  as  we  can  tell,  he  can  never  attain  a  high  speed  in 
shorthand,  and  w  ill  likely  not  be  able  to  graduate  in  the  subject,  and  that 
if  he  does  pursue  it  as  his  vocation,  he  will  have  to  be  satisfied  with  any- 
thing but  first  class  positions.  "Do  you  want  to  continue  in  the  face  of 
this  or  do  you  want  to  take  up  something  else?"  Of  course,  what  has  just 
been  said  is  based  upon  our  finding  a  test  which  actually  does  what  we 
want  it  to  do.  Before  we  can  talk  so  positively,  however,  we  must  have 
proved  our  case.  If  a  student  insists  on  taking  the  course,  despite  the  in- 
dications from  the  test,  record  should  be  kei)t  of  the  progress  of  the 
student  to  see  whether  or  not  the  theory  does  carry  out.) 

As  an  experiment,  the  tests  should  be  tried  on  the  classes  without  tell- 
ing them  the  reason.  Record  shovdd  be  kejjt  where  neither  the  teachers 
nor  the  pu])ils  can  have  access  to  it.  At  the  end  of  the  course  these  records 
should  be  compared  with  the  progress  the  student  has  made,  to  see  if  the 
work  of  the  student  bears  out  the  prediction.  The  object  in  keeping  the 
record  from  the  teachers  is  that  no  one  may  be  able  unduly  to  alter  the  out- 
come. 

The  reason  for  making  ever\-  pu])il  take  the  test  is  that  w  hat  might  be  a 
bright  pupil  in  other  subjects  might  not  be  one  adapted  to  shorthand  writ- 
ing and  possibly  the  judgment  based  on  progress  in  other  subjects,  would 


144  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

not  be  valid  here.  What  might  appear  to  be  such  a  case  has  been  found  in 
the  West  Chester  High  School — a  girl  who  is  considered  in  the  academic 
departments  as  being  too  bright  to  be  in  the  commercial  department,  and 
yet  she  appears  almost  hopeless  at  times  in  her  shorthand,  and  the  teacher 
wonders  if  she  will  ever  become  an  efficient  stenographer. 

Furthermore,  if  the  test  is  given  to  all  students  at  the  beginning  of  the 
course  in  shorthand,  the  records  can  be  compared  with  the  ability  of  the 
pupils  to  take  dictation  at  high  speed  and  it  will  act  as  a  check  on  the  test 
and  determine  whether  or  not  the  test  is  dependable. 

2.  Schools  Chosen. 

a.  Character  of  Student  Body. 

This  should  be  tried  in  as  many  schools  as  possible,  so  as  to  reach  the 
greatest  variety  of  students  in  order  to  be  able  to  tell  whether  or  not  it 
really  carries  out  under  all  conditions,  and,  if  not,  to  try  to  ascertain  under 
what  conditions  it  does  carry  out  and  under  which  ones  it  does  not. 

b.  Accessibility. 

The  school  should  be  accessible  to  the  experimenter,  as  explained  on  p. 
36  ff. 

c.  Co-operation. 

There  should  be  the  necessary  co-operation  on  the  ])art  of  all  concerned 
as  mentioned  on  p.  38  it. 

3.  Teachers  Chosen. 

Since  no  actual  teaching  is  involved  in  the  experiment  jiroper,  there 
need  be  no  thought  given  as  to  the  teachers,  unless  the  teacher  is  to  con- 
duct the  test. 

III.     CHOICE  OE  CONDUCTOR 

The  one  who  conducts  the  test,  whether  it  be  the  teacher  or  the  experi- 
menter, should  have  the  following  qualifications  : 

He  should  know  enough  about  psychology  to  be  able  to  handle  the  sit- 
uation intelligently  and  to  appreciate  unlooked-for  situations  that  might 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  145 

present  themselves.  He  should  also  have  had  some  experience  in  a  psycho- 
logical laboratory,  so  that  he  may  be  familiar  with  the  methods  of  psycho- 
logical tests,  or  he  should  have  the  necessary  fitness  that  a  person,  who  has 
taken  such  a  course,  would  have. 

He  must  have  the  scientific  attitude  of  mind,  be  unbiased  and  be  work- 
ing only  for  the  true  solution  of  the  problem  and  not  be  inclined  to  help 
matters  one  way  or  another.  He  must  be  exceedingly  accurate  because 
when  we  consider  one-fifth  of  a  second,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  make  an  er- 
ror, and,  since  the  time  between  high  and  low  personal  coefficients  is  not 
very  great,  the  work  must  be  accurately  done.  It  is  not  a  thing  that  any- 
one could  do,  and  before  the  person  hands  in  any  results  to  be  used  as  a 
record,  he  should  do  some  practice  work  and,  after  he  feels  he  has  ac- 
quired a  reasonable  amount  of  skill  in  conducting  the  tests,  he  can  then 
proceed  with  the  commercial  students,  whose  records  are  to  figure  in  the 
experiment. 

In  short,  the  person  selected  should  be  some  one  who  is  posted  on  psy- 
chology, has  had  experience  in  a  psychological  laboratory,  if  }jossible,  is 
keen,  quick,  observant  and  accurate. 

See  also  p.  44  ff. 

IV.     DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  PROCEDURE 

General  Plan. 

In  giving  the  test,  the  students  would  best  be  called  in  one  at  a  time,  and, 
after  they  have  finished,  they  should  be  instructed  not  to  tell  the  others 
what  has  taken  place.  Another  person  could  do  this  instructing,  in  case 
the  teacher  wished  to  proceed  as  quickly  as  possible  with  the  timing. 

The  student  should  be  called  up  to  the  desk  and  given  paper  and  pencil 
and  told  briefly  that  he  is  to  write  on  the  paper  the  letters  and  words 
that  are  dictated  to  him. 

The  question  arises,  should  he  be  told  any  more  than  this,  or  not.  It  is 
not  a  test  in  spelling  nor  penmanship.  Some  students  may  think  it  is  and 
lose  time  in  that  respect  unless  they  are  told.  On  the  other  hand,  telling 
them  that,  may  bring  about  an  abnormal  condition.  If  it  is  decided  to 
test  them  on  a  sentence,  all  the  words  should  be  ones  they  know  how  to 
spell. 

The  hesitation  in  writing,  which  is  the  factor  we  are  seeking,  would 
take  place  if  the  student  did  not  know  how  to  spell  a  word,  i.  e.,  if  he  did 
not  know  how  to  begin  it  (  for  that  is  the  only  part  with  which  we  are 
concerned  in  this  test).     If  he  hesitated  after  he  had  started  the  word,  it 


146  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

would  not  make  any  material  difference  for  our  test,  since  we  are  noting 
the  time  when  he  begins  to  write.  The  penmanship,  whether  good  or  bad, 
would  not  count  in  the  test,  because  all  we  are  seeking  is  the  time  necessary 
to  re-act  and  the  moment  the  student  touches  the  paper  with  the  pencil,  is 
the  one  with  which  we  are  concerned  and  nothing  more  than  that.  There- 
fore, it  would  not  seem  to  be  necessary  to  give  any  instructions  at  all  ex- 
cept to  write  what  he  is  told. 

Should  the  student  be  instructed  to  write  it  as  quickly  as  he  can  ?  The 
argument  pro  is,  that  he  w^ould  be  taking  the  test  intelligently,  that  is,  he 
would  know  what  he  is  expected  to  do.  The  argument  contra  is,  that  it 
might  produce  a  confusing  element  because  he  may  try  to  go  faster  than 
he  is  able  and  get  things  wrong.  Of  course,  in  taking  shorthand  dictation, 
he  knows  he  is  to  go  as  fast  as  he  can,  and  yet  similar  trouble  happens 
there,  because  the  person,  who  tries  to  go  faster  than  he  is  able,  becomes 
confused. 

The  teacher,  watch  in  hand,  with  his  eyes  on  the  pencil  of  the  student, 
says  the  word  or  letter,  and  so  saying,  starts  the  stop  watch.  Just  as  soon 
as  the  student  touches  the  paper  with  the  pencil,  in  an  attempt  to  write 
something,  the  watch  is  stopped. 

This  time  should  be  noted  on  the  record  opposite  the  word  dictated  and 
under  the  name  of  the  person  taking  the  test. 

So  on  with  the  rest  of  the  words. 

Ten  words  would  seem  to  be  a  fair  number  on  which  to  get  an  average. 

Add  up  the  time  required  and  divide  by  lo  to  get  the  average. 

After  all  the  pu|)ils  have  been  tested,  tabulate  the  averages. 

I.     Content. 

a.     Difficulties. 

Pre-preliminary  Tests. 

It  may  be  necessary  to  do  some  pre-preliminary  testing,  to  find  suitable 
material  for  the  ])reliminary  test,  and  in  order  that  the  conductor  may  be- 
come acquainted  with  the  method. 

Preliminary  Tests. 

For  the  preliminary  test  the  material  will  be  either  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet or  a  short  sentence  containing  familiar  words. 

The  following  letters  have  been  chosen  as  the  best  ones  for  pre-prelim- 
inary testing : 

e,    h.    i,    1,    n,    r,    s,    u,    v,    y. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  147 

They  arc  the  ones  tliat  can  he  made  most  quickly  and  do  not  have  several 
variations,  which  would  make  it  impossible  to  com]xu-e  the  time  of  one 
person  with  another  (should  we  later  find  that  necessary)  because  we 
could  not  figure  on  the  extra  time,  and  to  tell  a  person  to  write  an  "a",  for 
instance,  different  from  his  accustomed  way,  would  introduce  a  factor 
which  would  be  responsible  for  the  hesitation. 

Several  students  were  timed  for  their  re-action.  It  was  explained  to 
them  that  certain  letters  were  going  to  be  named  and  that  they  were  to 
write  them  down  just  as  fast  as  they  could.  No  reason  was  given  the 
student.  The  stoj)  watch  was  started  as  soon  as  the  word  was  said  and 
stopped  as  soon  as  the  student  began  to  make  the  first  stroke — 'just  as  soon 
as  one    could  see  the  re-action  take  place.     The  following  is  the  result : 


student    Xo. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

e 

4 

6 

4 

4 

312 

3 

4 

h 

7 

51/2 

4 

5 

31/2 

8 

5 

i 

4 

6 

5 

4 

41/2 

9 

5 

I 

5 

5 

3 

4 

41/2 

4 

5 

n 

5 

31/2 

4 

4 

3% 

7 

5 

r 

5 

4 

3 

51-! 

41/2 

10 

5 

s 

4 

41/2 

3 

5I2 

4 

3 

5 

u 

5 

51/2 

4 

4 

41/2 

9 

4 

V 

4 

5 

5 

4 

4 

6 

5 

y 

4V2 

31/2 

4 

3 

41.2 

5 

3 

47V2 

481/2 

39 

43 

41 

06 

46 

This  time  is  given  in  fifths  of  a  second. 

From  this  table  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  shortest  average  time  is  3.9 
while  the  longest  is  6.6,  very  nearly  twice  that  of  the  other. 

On  the  basis  of  this  table,  would  it  be  correct  to  assume  that  while  the 
first  person  could  re-act  to  an  average  of  about  80  dictation  stimuli  per 
minute,  tlie  second  could  re-act  to  approximately  not  more  than  50  per 
minute  on  the  average?  On  its  face,  that  would  seem  correct.  It  would 
be  necessary  to  jirove  this,  however,  from  actual  cases  tested  both  ways,, 
that  is,  on  the  alphabet  in  longhand  and  also  in  shorthand  dictation. 

Several  other  students  were  also  tested  on  the  letters  and,  in  addition, 
on  a  short,  easy  sentence.  The  sentence  chosen  was,  "The  book  was  on 
the  table  in  the  other  room."  No  high  school  student  should  have  to  hes- 
itate in  writing  any  of  these  words,  either  because  of  the  spelling  or  for 
any  other  reasons.  The  student  was  told  that  he  would  be  given  a  sen- 
tence, one  word  at  a  time,  and  that  he  was  to  write  the  word  as  quickly  as 
he  could.  The  stop  watch  was  started  as  soon  as  the  w^ord  was  pro- 
nounced, and  stopped  as  soon  as  the  pencil  started  the  first  stroke  of  the 
word.     The  following  table  shows  the  results : 


148 


EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 


to 


-a 


K 


e  2  3  3 

h  4  2  4 

i  4  3  5 

1  5  3  4 

n  4  3  4 

r  3  3  4 

s  4  3  4 

u  4  3  4 

V  5  4  3 

y  4  4  4 


£ 

z 

rf 

c3 

-t-j 

-i-i 

0/ 

"5 

T-l 

III 

I— t 

Tl 

72 

c 

CI 

1-i 

n 

•I. 

"3 

4 

4 

3 

4 

6 

1 

6 

6 

6 

5 

6 

4 

4 

3 

6 

5 

5 

7 

5 

41/2 

5 

6 

4 

3 

2 

4 

5 

8 

4 

6 

6 

5 

4 

3 

4 

3 

4 

6 

6 

4 

5 

4 

1 

4 

3 

4 

3 

6 

6 

6 

4 

6 

4 

5 

4 

4 

4 

2 

6 

9 

7 

4 

6 

6 

8 

6 

4 

4 

2 

5 

6 

7 

4 

4 

4 

6 

5 

4 

4 

3 

5 

6 

6 

4 

6 

5 

5 

41/2 

3 

4 

2 

4 

6 

1 

6 

5 

5 

5 

6 

4 

3 

2 

5 

6 

6 

4 

6 

4 

6 

7 

Total 

39 

31 

39 

37 

38 

25 

49 

61 

65 

47 

55 

481/2 

57 

521/2 

The 

5 

3 

5 

4 

3 

3 

6 

7 

4 

4 

6 

41/2 

5 

10 

book 

4 

3 

6 

5 

4 

2 

6 

6 

5 

6 

4 

41/2 

5 

5 

was 

5 

4 

3 

3 

3 

2 

7 

4 

5 

6 

4 

4 

7 

6 

on 

5 

4 

3 

2 

2 

2 

7 

6 

6 

4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

the 

4 

3 

4 

3 

2 

3 

5 

5 

8 

4 

5 

31/2 

rr 
( 

6 

table. 

3 

2 

3 

2 

•7 

0 

6 

5 

5 

3 

5 

4% 

5 

41/2 

in 

4 

3 

3 

2 

3 

2 

6 

6 

5 

5 

7 

4 

5 

5 

the 

3 

3 

3 

0 

3 

3 

6 

4 

7 

4 

5 

4 

5 

4 

other 

5 

3 

4 

3 

3 

3 

6 

8 

5 

4 

5 

4 

5 

5 

room 

4 

3 

4 

4 

3 

3 

6 

5 

8 

4 

4 

4 

8 

6 

Total  42        31        38 


Student 

Sex 

1 

F 

2 

M 

3 

M 

4 

M 

5 

M 

6 

M 

7 

M 

30        28        25        61        56        58        44  49        42        58 

Age                         Class  Course 

17  Senior  Commercial 

17  Senior  Commercial 

16  Senior  Commercial 

17  Fresh-Soph.  Commercial 
15  Soph.  Vocational 
15  Fresh-Soph.  Commercial 
15  Fresh-Soph.  Scientific 


571/2 


Erom  these  tables  several  things  will  be  noted : 

1st,  that  while  there  is  a  general  uniformity,  there  is  not  absolute  uni- 
formity throughout.  It  is  most  likely  similar  to  the  situation  in  typewrit- 
ing. We  try  to  measure  the  speed  of  a  person  on  the  machine.  Today  he 
writes  40  net  words  per  minute  and  tomorrow  he  writes  only  20.  Or  it 
may  be  that  10  minutes  after  he  has  written  40,  he  writes  only  30.  There  is 
considerable  variation  and  yet  in  spite  of  it  we  gauge  a  person's  value  in 
typewriting,  largely  by  speed.  Why  do  we  not  give  it  up  and  find  another 
method  if  this  one  is  so  varying?  The  fact  of  the  matter  is  that  the  only 
way  to  ascertain  what  the  speed  of  a  person  is,  is  to  try  him  out.  He  may 
do  better  today  than  yesterday.  He  may  do  somewhat  worse  tomorrow. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  more  definite  information  than  if  we  were  merelv  to 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  149 

guess  at  it.  There  are  many  factors  which  niay  enter  into  the  test,  which 
we  cannot  eHminate  just  at  the  time  we  want  to  do  so,  hut  we  are  at  least 
enabled  to  say  this  much,  that  this  person  has  written  so  many  words  per 
minute,  just  as  we  say  that  a  certain  horse  has  run  a  mile  in  so  many  min- 
utes. 

The  table  tells  us  at  least  that  there  is  considerable  difference  between 
pupil  No.  3.  who  in  the  second  attempt  averaged  2^  fifths  of  a  second, 
and  pupil  No.  4,  who  averaged  over  5}^  fifths  of  a  second  in  the  2nd  at- 
tempt. 

2nd,  it  shows  that  while  some  students  re-acted  in  2  fifths  of  a  second  at 
times,  other  students  never  made  it  in  2  fifths' and  never  made  it  in  less 
time  than  4  fifths  ;  see  students  Nos.  4  and  7.  If  this  is  their  quickest  re- 
action to  something  which  they  know  as  well  as  the  long-hand  alphabet 
and  the  easy  sentence  given,  is  their  comparative  re-action  likely  to  be 
any  quicker  after  learning  a  shorthand  system,  which  we  have  good  cause 
to  believe  they  do  not  learn  as  thoroughly  as  they  do  their  longhand  alpha- 
bet ?  This  would  seem  to  be  a  logical  conclusion,  but  the  only  way  to 
prove  it  is  to  make  the  test  and  compare  the  finished  product  with  the 
results  of  the  test. 

The  value  of  some  such  test  can  readily  be  appreciated  by  commercial 
teachers,  and  it  is  hoped  that  other  teachers  will  give  seme  thought  to  the 
problem  and  try  to  find  a  better  method  than  the  one  here  suggested. 

No  equalization  test  need  be  given,  because  the  object  of  this  experi- 
ment is  to  ascertain  a  certain  innate  ability  or  lack  of  ability,  which  we 
believe  we  cannot  equalize  in  any  way. 

Final  Test. 

The  final  test  will  consist  in  checking  up  the  student's  record  at  the 
end  of  his  shorthand  course  with  the  record  of  the  preliminary  tests. 

If  the  student  has  not  survived  until  the  end  of  his  course,  some  effort 
ought  to  be  made  to  ascertain  the  reason  for  his  withdrawal.  If  he  was  one 
of  those  whose  preliminary  test  showed  a  slow  re-action  and  he  could  not 
make  progress  in  his  shorihand,  this  should  be  borne  in  mind  in  consider- 
ing his  record. 

By  ascertaining  the  slowest  re-action  of  those  who  did  complete  their 
course,  we  will  get  some  idea  to  hel])  us  over  the  troublesome  nfiddle 
ground.  That  is,  we  can  easily  agree  that  the  ([uickest  students  would  be 
fit  and  that  the  slowest  would  likely  not  be  fit,  but  it  would  be  difficult  to 
tell  about  the  others.  If  we  have  an  accurate  record  covering  several 
years'  tests,  we  can  say  to  students  that  so  far  no  one  of  \our  re-action  ha; 
made  good,  or  that  two  or  three  of  yours  have  made  good.  That  will  be 
another  step  in  the  direction  of  definiteness. 


150  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

Other  Difficulties. 

The  greatest  difficulty  in  this  undertaking  is  that  the  most  important 
factor,  the  time  element,  is  measured  by  such  exceedingly  short  periods. 
The  difference  between  the  students  who  can  gain  high  speed  in  shorthand 
and  those  who  cannot  gain  it  must  be  very  little  in  time  required  to  re-act 
on  each  word  or  letter.  But  the  sum  of  these  for  the  period  of  one  min- 
ute would  be  considerable.  Since  the  difference  in  each  case  is  so  small, 
it  will  take  keen  observation  and  accurate  w^ork  to  obtain  a  record  of  the 
time.  To  overcome  this  difficulty,  a  stop  watch  is  the  instrument  to  use. 
Sometimes  a  watch  loses  a  fraction  of  a  second  in  starting,  that  is.  it  does 
not  respond  quickly  enough  to  the  touch  in  starting  it.  A  watch  that 
measures  smaller  periods  than  fifths  of  a  second  would  be  of  considera- 
ble value  in  this  experiment.  There  are  instruments,  of  course,  which 
measure  smaller  fractions  of  a  second  than  fifths,  but  the  price  of  these  is 
prohibitive  for  the  ordinary  school,  and  we  must  try  to  find  a  method  that 
can  be  used  by  the  schools  in  general. 

b.  Time. 

The  test  could  be  given  at  any  time  convenient  to  the  persons  involved. 
It  should  be  given  at  the  beginning  of  the  shorthand  course  if  it  is  to  be  of 
much  value. 

c.  Periods. 

There  being  no  classwork  in  this  experiment,  we  do  not  have  to  con- 
sider the  matter  of  proper  periods. 

d.  Subject-matter. 

The  subject-matter  of  the  tests  should  be  material  with  which  the  stu- 
dents are  absolutely  familiar,  so  that  there  may  be  no  hesitation  due  to  any- 
thing else  than  innate  ability  to  re-act. 

All  high  school  pupils  are  taken  to  know  the  longhand  alphabet.  It 
could  therefore  be  used  as  suitable  material. 

The  stenographer's  test  comes  in  taking  words  and  net  letters.  A  short 
sentence,  containing  familiar  words,  is  therefore  suggested  as  being  bet- 
ter than  letters.  There  may  be  no  difference  in  these  two,  and  again  there 
may. 

See  p.  146  for  suggested  letters  and  p.  142  for  a  suggested  sentence. 
Care  should  be  used  in  i)ronouncing  the  "n"  so  that  the  student  is  not 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  151 

obliged  to  pause  in  trying  to  determine  whether  "n"  or  "m"  was  said. 
Some  students  did  not  immediately  understand  the  word  "The"  because 
the  vowel  was  not  pronounced  as  they  were  accustomed  to  hearing  it. 
"When  a  pupil  hesitates  in  that  wa}',  a  note  should  be  made  on  the  record, 
to  help  reconcile  any  differences. 

It  is  suggested  that  both  letters  and  sentences  be  used,  as  a  check  on 
each  other. 

It  will  be  noticed  from  the  table  on  p.  148  that  there  is  some  difference 
in  the  re-action  between  the  tirst  time  the  letters  were  given  and  the  second 
time.  This  is  likely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  student  does  not  know  just 
exactly  what  is  wanted  the  first  time,  on  account  of  the  novelty  of  the 
thing  and  the  brief  explanation  given,  and  it  would  therefore  seem  wise  to 
give  each  student  two  tests,  one  immediately  following  the  other.  This 
data  may  prove  of  value  later  on. 

e.     Details  of  Procedure. 

( I )  The  instructions  to  the  helpers  should  urge  the  greatest  care  to 
be  accurate  and  to  pronounce  very  distinctly. 

(3)  It  would  not  make  any  material  difference  if  the  order  of  giving 
the  letters  is  inverted,  but  it  might  cause  some  hesitation  on  the  part  of  the 
student,  if,  in  giving  the  sentence,  the  words  are  inverted,  and  the  stu- 
dent, having  been  led  to  believe  that  a  sentence  would  be  given,  stops  to 
get  sense  out  of  something  which  does  not  make  sense  with  inverted 
words.  The  brighter  students  would  be  the  ones  most  likely  to  suffer  on 
this  account,  as  they  would  more  quickly  sense  the  fact  that  something  is 
wrong  and  would  hesitate  because  of  it. 

(4)  Record  should  be  made  of  any  interruptions,  misunderstandings, 
niis[)ronunciations,  etc.,  which  would  in  any  way  aff'ect  the  test.  If  it  should 
happen  that  the  student  appearing  for  test  is  fatigued,  the  test  should  be 
given  at  another  time,  rather  than  give  it  and  make  note  that  he  was  fa- 
tigued. 

If  a  word  does  not  fairly  represent  the  student's  re-action  because  of 
misunderstanding,  etc.,  it  would  seem  that  it  should  be  thrown  out  in  cal- 
culating the  average.  Misunderstandings  will  probably  be  the  greatest  fac- 
tor accountable  for  variety  in  the  recorded  re-action  time  for  a  student, 
and  where  it  is  definitely  known  that  the  student  has  not  had  a  fair  oppor- 
tunity, it  seems  wrong  to  include  it.  It  will  not  always  do  to  rej)eat  the  let- 
ter or  word.  That  may  ])roduce  too  short  an  interval,  on  account  of  the 
student's  half  expecting  it  and  being  ready  for  it.  Another  letter  could  eas- 
ily be  substituted,  but  it  is  not  so  easy  in  the  case  of  a  sentence. 


152  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

2.     Form. 

The  balance  of  the  outhne  appHes  uniformly  to  all  the  experiments  and 
is  covered  fully  on  p.  62  ft". 

b.     SHORTHAND. 

Experiment  No.  6.     Forearm  vs.  Finger  Movement  in  Shorthand. 

I.     FORMULATION 
I.     Introduction. 

a.     General  Statement. 

Penmen  have  demonstrated  the  ethcitncy  of  the  forearm  movement  in 
longhand  over  the  finger  movement.  The  question  occurs :  Does  it  also 
have  a  place  in  the  writing  of  shorthand?  Various  opinions  have  been  ex- 
pressed when  the  question  has  been  put  to  commercial  teachers,  as  is 
shown  by  the  following  : 

Pitman  writers  who  |)referred  forearm,   i 

combined,  2 

finger,  5 

Gregg  writers  who  preferred  forearm,  6 

combined,  4 
finger,  2 
Graham  writer  who  preferred  combined,  i 
vSeveral  said  that  they  did  not  know. 

Several  others  answered  negatively  that  a  certain  one  could  not  be 
used,  but  did  not  say  which  one  could  be  used. 

However,  most  of  these  are  expression  of  opinion  and  those  that  are 
more  than  this  are  not  sujiported  by  data  in  such  a  way  that  it  would  carry 
weight.  Therefore,  it  would  be  well  to  try  this  out  and  see  what  could  be 
done  to  obtain  a  scientific  determination. 

As  will  be  noted,  the  Gregg  writers  claim  that  the  forearm  movement 
has  a  place  in  their  system.  Exercises  for  such  practice,  for  use  in  the 
Gregg  system,  are  published.  The  opinion,  it  will  be  noticed,  however,  is 
not  unanimous. 

Pitman  writers  do  not  think  the  forearm  movement  has  so  large  a  place 
in  their  system,  their  o])inion  being  based,  it  is  understood,  on  the  fact 
that  shading  is  required  in  the  Pitman  systems  and  not  in  the  Gregg.     If 


i 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  153 

the  shading  is  the  disadvantageous  feature  for  forearm  movement,  what 
must  we  say  about  forearm  movement  for  scroll  work,  engrossing,  etc.,  of 
which  we  see  considerable  in  penmanship  magazines?  If  it  is  used  to  ad- 
vantage for  the  shading  in  this  kind  of  work,  it  might  be  used  to  advantage 
in  shorthand. 

1).     Survey  of  Experiments  Made. 

No  experiments  along  the  line  tuider  consideration,  have  been  found. 

2.     Specific  Statement. 

This  experiment  is  undertaken  to  see  if  any  light  can  be  shed  on  the 
question  as  to  whether  or  not  the  forearm  movement  would  be  of  more 
advantage  in  writing  shorthand  than  the  present  finger  movement  (or  com- 
bination of  movements). 

II.     SELECTION  OF  LABORATORY 

1.  Groups  Chosen. 

It  w(;uld  seem  that  the  experiment  could  be  tried  out  on  advanced  pu- 
pils as  well  as  beginners  in  shorthand.  It  ought  not  to  be  too  late  for  the 
advanced  student  to  "'mend." 

2.  Schools  Chosen. 

Any  school  could  be  chosen  where  the  conditions  of  necessary  co-oper- 
ation exist.     See  p.  38  fif. 

3.  Teachers  Chosen. 

What  is  said  about  teachers  in  general  on  p.  41  tt.  also  applies  here. 
III.     CHOICE  OF  CONDUCTOR 

I'he  regular  shorthand  teacher  would  seem  to  be  the  most  suitable  person 
to  conduct  the  classes,  provided  she  knows  the  subject  of  shorthand  pen- 
manship. 

The  general  reasons  given  on  p.  44  ff.  also  hold  here. 


154  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

IV.     DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  PROCEDURE  | 

I.     Content. 

General  Plan. 

Inasmuch  as  the  question  of  shorthand  penmanship  has  been  raised, 
it  would  seem  worth  while  to  decide  the  matter  by  obtaining  some  relia- 
ble data  for  the  various  systems  of  shorthand. 

We  can  take  either  a  beginners'  class  or  an  advanced  class.  We  should 
have  two  sections  of  the  class,  one  taking  forearm  penmanship  work  and 
the  other  practicing  with  finger  movement,  and  at  the  end  of  a  given  time, 
results  should  be  compared. 

Or  we  may  have  only  one  section  of  advanced  students,  and  compare 
the  shorthand  penmanship  of  the  students  before  and  after  having  had 
special  forearm  drill  in  the  work. 

Let  us  take  a  beginners'  class,  which  will  be  divided  into  two  sections. 
In  addition  to  the  regular  work  of  the  class,  each  section  will  have,  say, 
15  or  20  minutes  on  shorthand  penmanship.  In  the  one  section  they 
would  practice  shorthand  marks  with  the  finger  movement,  and  in  the 
other,  with  the  forearm  movement,  both  sections  taking  the  same  amount 
of  practice  ( so  far  as  time  is  concerned )  and  practicing  on  the  same  ma- 
terial. At  the  end  of  a  month  and  again  at  the  end  of  two  months,  we 
would  give  them  a  final  test.  This  would  be  dictated  at  a  fairly  rapid 
rate,  considering  the  advancement  of  the  students,  and  they  would  be 
asked  to  write  it  in  shorthand.  The  work  in  their  final  tests  could  then 
be  compared  with  the  work  of  the  preliminary  or  equalization  test. 

Let  us  take  an  advanced  class,  which  will  be  divided  into  two  sections, 
both  under  the  same  teacher.  The  sections  will  be  given  10  or  15  min- 
utes of  shorthand  i)enmanship,  one  section  forearm  and  the  other  finger 
movement.  The  results  here  may  be  diiTerent  from  those  of  the  begin- 
ners because  of  the  fact  that  these  students  are  doing  much  more  phrasing 
and  the  outlines  are  consequently  longer.  They  should  be  tested  on  mat- 
ter which  is  entirely  familiar  to  them,  and  the  test  should  be  given  at  the 
speed  which  is  the  normal  speed  for  the  part  of  the  course  in  which  they 
are  working.  Then,  a  comparison  of  the  papers  should  be  made,  as  with 
the  beginners. 

Preliminary  Test. 

Some  test  will  have  to  be  given  at  the  start,  whether  it  be  a  preliminary 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  155 

test  or  an  ecjualization  test.  If  it  is  decided  that  an  e([ualizaiion  test  is 
reL'essary,  we  can  use  that  test  as  a  prehminary  test  al-o. 

The  purpose  of  the  prehminary  test  is  to  have  specimens  of  the  short- 
hand penmanship  taken  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment,  so  that  we 
can  observe  the  progress  made  during  the  special  shorthand  drill. 

The  preliminary  test  should  consist  of  writing  in  shorthand  from  dicta- 
tion. Of  course,  the  speed  of  the  dictation  nuist  be  gauged  1)\-  the  pro- 
gress of  the  class.  In  the  case  of  beginners  we  shall  have  to  wait  until 
they  have  learned  the  alphabet,  at  least. 

Equalization  Test. 

Do  we  require  an  equalization  test?    If  so,  what  nature  shall  it  take? 

\\'e  shall  likely  agree  that  the  ability  of  all  persons  to  do  forearm  move- 
ment in  shorthand,  is  not  alike,  and  therefore  we  will  have  to  equalize  the 
■class  in  some  way. 

Contrary  to  many  experiments,  we  do  not  want  to  get  an  equal  number 
of  each  kind  of  student  into  each  section.  We  are  testing  forearm  writing 
and  finger  writing.  The  most  logical  thing  to  do,  it  would  seem,  would  be 
to  put  the  forearm  writers  into  one  section  and  the  finger  writers  into  the 
other.  In  this  way  each  student  is  with  his  own  clan  and  more  co-opera- 
tion will  result  than  would  be  the  case  if  some  who  never  reconciled  them- 
selves to  the  forearm  movement  are  put  into  that  section.  It  would  seem 
useless  to  put  the  forearm  writers  into  the  finger  writing  section  and  try 
to  accustom  them  to  this  method.  They  would  most  likely  unconsciously 
write  with  the  forearm  movement,  and  we  would  not  be  testing  at  all  the 
thing  we  thought  we  were.  Therefore,  we  must  find  some  method  of  de- 
termining who  the  forearm  writers  are,  and  put  them  into  the  forearm  sec- 
tion. 

Possibly  the  best  method  of  determining  this  would  be  to  have  the 
penmanship  teacher  observe  the  students  in  their  writing  and  classify 
them. 

If  it  is  found  that  a  considerable  number  of  students  use  a  combination 
of  finger  and  forearm  movement,  it  might  be  well  to  make  a  third  section, 
and  permit  them  to  do  their  shorthand  penmanship  practice  in  line  with 
this  combined  method. 

Final  Tests. 

Monthly  intervals  between  final  tests  would  seem  to  be  reasonable. 
The  test  should  be  on  matter  familiar  to  the  class,  and  should  be  given 


156  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

at  a  speed  which  the  class  can  take.  The  matter  should  be  dictated.  We 
do  not  want  to  give  this  test  at  too  slow  a  speed,  for  that  is  not  the  way 
shorthand  is  taken,  and,  furthermore,  it  would  permit  the  finger  writers 
to  draw  their  outlines,  instead  of  writing  them. 

Other  Difficulties. 

Our  one  great  diffictilty  will  be  the  scoring  of  the  papers. 

We  could  quickly  find  our  way  out  of  the  difficulty  if  we  had  a  short- 
hand penmanship  scale,  similar  to  those  we  have  for  longhand  penman- 
ship. So  far  as  the  present  research  has  shown,  however,  there  is  none. 
The  only  thing  left  for  us  to  do  in  the  absence  of  such  a  scale,  is  to  sep- 
arate the  papers  into  three  classes :  excellent,  poor,  and  mediocre.  It  will 
be  easy  to  select  from  the  class  the  most  excellent  ones  and  also  the  poor- 
est ones,  but  those  on  the  border  line  will  give  trouble.  However,  since 
we  have  no  better  method  at  present,  we  must  use  it.  And,  though  it  is 
not  a  closely  graded  method  of  classification,  it  is  better  than  none  at  all. 

One  method  of  comparing  preliminary  with  final  tests,  would  be  to  see 
how  many  of  the  mediocre  and  poor  class  reached  the  excellent  class  and 
how  many  of  the  poor  class  reached  the  mediocre  class. 

Another  method  would  be  to  compare  each  student's  preliminary  test 
with  his  final  tests.  This  might  be  very  convincing  for  the  teacher  who 
has  the  papers  in  front  of  her.  but  in  the  absence  of  a  scale,  it  would  be 
very  hard  for  her  to  convey  to  others,  who  cannot  see  the  papers,  the 
amoiuit  of  improvement  that  has  taken  place.  We  would  be  obliged  to 
take  her  word  that  there  was  much  or  little  improvement,  and  we  would 
not  get  a  very  definite  idea  from  it. 

This  experiment  will  be  more  convincing  to  the  person  making  it.  than 
it  can  be  to  others.  But,  even  in  spite  of  this  disadvantage,  it  does  seem 
worth  while  to  undertake  it.  The  papers  of  the  preliminary  and  final 
tests  should  be  kept  on  file,  so  that  in  case  a  shorthand  penmanship  scale 
is  evolved,  more  definite  information  can  be  given,  regarding  the  results. 

b.     Time. 

The  experiment  could  be  tried  practically  any  time  of  the  year,  after  the 
beginners  have  learned  at  least  their  alphabet. 

The  penmanship  work  should  come  as  often  as  the  regular  shorthand 
instruction  is  given.  The  easiest  way  to  do  would  be  to  take  part  of  the 
shorthand  period  for  it,  say  15  or  20  minutes. 

The  final  test  could  be  given  at  the  end  of  one  month,  two  months,  or 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  157 

more,  if  it  were  found  that  the  results  were  sufficiently  promising  to  war- 
rant conducting  the  experiment  for  that  length  of  time. 

c.  Periods. 

Periods  would  not  seem  to  make  much  difference.  Penmanship  does 
not  require  a  large  amount  of  concentration  and  would  not  be  fatiguing. 
We  ought  to  be  sure,  however,  that  one  section  does  not  have  an  advan- 
tage over  the  other  in  the  choice  of  periods.    See  p.  56. 

d.  Subject-matter. 

The  subject-matter  of  the  drills  would  be  the  shorthand  characters 
which  the  students  are  using  at  their  stage  of  advancement.  For  the  be- 
ginners it  would  be  largely  alphabet  and  simply  words.  For  the  advanced 
students  it  would  involve  phrasing. 

The  tests  should  be  on  familiar  matter. 

e.  Detail  of  Procedure. 

No  particular  instructions  need  be  given  for  this  experiment.  The 
general  considerations  mentioned  on  p.  58  ft'.,  under  this  heading,  would 
apply. 

2.     Form. 

The  balance  of  the  outline  applies  uniformly  to  all  experiments  and  is 
covered  fully  on  p.  62  ff. 

b.     SHORTHAND. 

Experiment  No.  7.     The  drill  most  valuable  to  the  shorthand  student. 

1.     FORMULATION 
I.     Introduction. 

a.     General  Statement. 

This  problem  is  similar  to  the  one  in  spelling.  We  have  reached  the 
point  where,  instead  of  trying  to  learn  the  spelling  of  all  the  words  of  the 
dictionary,  we  select  those  that  we  think  are  the  ones  most   frequently 


158  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

used,  and  drill  on  them.  It  is  unwise  to  try  to  give  shorthand  students  all 
the  words  they  may  ever  use.  It  would  seem  much  wiser  to  drill  them 
thoroughly  on  the  words  which  they  will  use  frequently. 

In  spelling,  one  man  selects  loo  Spelling  Demons,  another  selects  542 
words  from  2000  miscellaneous  letters,  another  selects  words  from  270 
newspaper  articles  by  200  different  writers,  etc. 

How  shall  we  obtain  the  list  for  shorthand  drill  ?    That  is  our  problem. 

b.     Survey  of  Experiments  IMade. 
The  search  for  experiments  in  this  field  brought  none  to  light. 
2.     Specific  Statement. 

This  experiment  is  undertaken  with  the  ho[)e  of  helping  to  determine 
what  phrases  and  words  would  afford  the  most  valuable  drill  for  the  short- 
hand student. 

This  undertaking  will  be  somewhat  different  from  the  other  experi- 
ments, insofar  as  the  greatest  part  of  the  work  will  not  be  done  with 
classes.  The  material  will  be  obtained  from  sources  outside  of  the  school. 
The  only  connection  the  school  will  have  will  be  to  prove  or  disprove,  by 
the  efficiency  of  its  students,  the  value  of  the  words  and  phrases  selected. 

II.     SELECTION  OF  LABORATORY 

1.  Groups  Chosen. 

Any  shorthand  pupils  could  be  used  for  the  work. 

2.  Schools  Chosen. 

Any  schools  would  be  suitable,  where  the  necessary  co-operation  ex- 
ists.    See  p.  38  ff. 

3.  Teachers  Chosen. 

Any  efficient  shorthand  teacher  could  be  chosen.  She  should  have  both 
sections  of  the  class.  See  p.  41  ff. 

III.     CHOICE  OF  CONDUCTOR 

Because  the  work  will  extend  over  a  long  period,  the  teacher  of  the  class 
is  the  most  suitable  person  to  conduct  the  experiment.    See  p.  44  ff. 

IV.     DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  PROCEDURE 

OBTAINING  THE  LIST. 

It  would  seem  that  the  words  chosen  should  be  from  business  letters. 


i 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  159 

Taking  the  dictation  of  business  letters  will  be  the  most  important  work  of 
the  majority  of  stenographers,  outside  of  the  court  stenographer,  and  he 
of  course,  is  a  finished  product,  as  compared  with  the  student  we  have  in 
mind.    Therefore,  we  can  ignore  him  in  this  consideration. 

It  would  be  better,  it  would  seem,  to  get  actual  letters  from  business, 
rather  than  compose  them  ourselves. 

It  would  be  well  to  get  the  permission  of  several  establishments,  like 
John  W'anamaker,  etc.  (one  of  say  each  important  kind),  and  for  say  a 
week,  collect  all  the  letters  they  write.  Of  course,  permission  would  have 
to  be  obtained  from  these  concerns,  and  the  understanding  would  be  that 
the  person  receiving  the  letters  would  keep  strictly  confidential  any  mat- 
ter contained  therein.  If  there  should  happen  to  be  a  personal  letter  or 
two  written  during  the  da\-,  which  were  very  confidential  and  of  which  the 
firm  would  not  want  the  copy  to  leave  the  office,  that  copy  could  be  omitted 
without  affecting  the  work  at  all.  It  is  the  bulk  of  the  regular  work  that 
we  desire  and  not  an  occasional  exceptional  letter. 

These  letters  could  best  be  obtained  by  having  the  stenographer  make 
an  extra  carbon  copy.  The  co-operation  of  the  stenographers  would  have 
to  be  enlisted,  or  else  many  of  the  carbons  would  not  come  through,  or 
would  be  omitted  in  the  making.  That,  however,  is  an  easy  matter  to 
overcome.  Possibly  some  check  on  the  number  of  letters  written  a  day 
by  each  stenographer,  would  assist.  Possibly  a  posted  record  in  the  office, 
showing  the  number  of  letters  turned  out,  would  encourage  care  along 
the  line  desired.  One  stenographer  would  not  want  the  other  to  beat  him 
in  the  number  of  letters  turned  out,  and,  of  course,  if  the  record  is  made 
from  the  carbons  turned  in,  it  will  be  an  incentive  to  the  stenographers  to 
make  the  extra  carbon  copy  ;  otherwise,  they  will  not  be  given  credit  for  it 
on  the  efficiency  list. 

An  efficiency  competition  could  be  instituted  as  a  camouflage  for  the 
real  reason  for  wanting  the  copies,  and  possibly  something  offered  to  the 
person  who  reaches  the  highest  efficiency,  if  that  is  not  becoming  too  mer- 
cenary. But  that  would  be  a  matter  for  the  concern  to  decide  and  would 
not  affect  the  list  at  all,  so  long  as  carbon  copies  are  obtained  of  all  the 
letters  written  during  the  period. 

The  stenographers  should  not  know  the  purpose  of  the  carbons.  It  may 
not  make  a  difference  and  again  it  may. 

An  efficiency  contest  could  be  instituted  in  several  concerns  over  the  city 
at  the  same  time,  and  inter-firm  competition  started,  if  so  desired. 

Many  firms  might  welcome  this  opportunity  of  ascertaining  just  how 
much  work  the  various  stenographers  do. 

From  all  the  carbons  obtained,  the  words  could  be  listed  and  checked 


i6o  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

off,  putting  a  dot  after  the  word  for  each  time  it  occurs.  Then  those  most 
frequently  used  could  be  made  the  basis  of  drill. 

A  list  of  the  phrases  used  should  also  be  made.  Both  lists  should  be 
utilized  in  the  drill. 

One  awkward  situation  just  at  this  time  is  the  fact  that  we  are  trying  to 
get  our  high  school  students  away  from  the  hackneyed  phrases  which  have 
been  used  in  business.  We  teach  the  pupils  one  thing  in  school,  and  yet 
when  they  get  out  into  business  they  come  into  contact  with  a  great  num- 
ber of  older  men  who  never  learned  Business  English  and  who  are  still 
using  the  time-worn  expressions  and  phrases.  Some  years  hence,  when 
the  control  of  business  is  in  the  hands  of  the  students  at  present  in  our 
high  schools,  who  are  being  taught  the  better  English,  this  difficulty  will 
be  overcome.  At  that  time  another  list  of  words  and  phrases  will  be  neces- 
sary. 

GENERAL  PLAN  FOR  TRYING  OUT  THE  LIST. 

After  we  have  the  list,  we  would  have  two  sections  of  a  class.  The  one 
section  would  be  conducted  just  as  it  wovild  be  if  no  list  were  known.  The 
other  section  would  be  drilled  in  the  words  and  jihrases  in  the  list,  as  part 
of  their  regular  shorthand  work.  Of  course,  that  means  time  must  be  tak- 
en away  from  their  regular  work.  In  all  other  respects  their  work  should 
be  the  same  as  that  of  the  other  section. 

The  hnal  test  should  consist  of  typical  business  letters,  given  to  both 
sections,  at  various  speeds,  say  lOO,  120,  140  or  any  other  grading  deemed 
wise.  The  object  would  be  to  see  how  many  from  each  section  could  take 
correctly,  the  letters  at  the  higher  speeds. 

Preliminary  Test. 

The  eciualization  test  will  serve  the  purpose  of  a  jireliminary  test. 

Equalization  Test. 

If  we  are  to  use  this  list  with  beginning  students  in  shorthand,  we  shall 
be  obliged  to  equalize  the  class  on  the  same  basis  mentioned  in  Experiment 
No.  4,  ]).  139;  but  since  we  have  no  satisfactory  basis  as  present,  we  shall 
have  to  conduct  the  experiment  on  a  large  scale,  to  eliminate  individual 
differences. 

If  we  are  going  to  begin  using  this  list  with  advanced  students,  we  are 
in  position  to  have  some  idea  as  to  their  ability  in  shorthand,  by  the  marks 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  i6i 

they  have  made  thus  far  in  the  subject.  These  may  be  subjective,  to  be 
sure,  and  the  judgment  of  one  teacher,  but  if  we  can  subdivide  the  class  of 
one  teacher,  it  will  not  make  so  much  difference.  Each  section  should 
contain  an  equal  number  of  the  best  of  the  class,  as  well  as  the  poorest, 
etc. 

A  more  objective  basis  could  be  obtained  by  giving  the  students  a  tran- 
scription test,  in  which  no  typographical  errors  are  counted,  but  merely  the 
errors  due  to  the  shorthand  notes.  A  penalty  should  be  imposed  for  every 
error,  and  the  section  could  be  formed  on  that  basis. 

Final  Test. 

As  mentioned  above,  the  final  test  should  consist  of  taking  from  dicta- 
tion say  three  typical  business  letters,  one  set  being  given  at  lOO  words  per 
minute,  another  set  at  a  slightly  higher  speed  and  another  at  a  still  higher 
speed,  etc.  These  should  be  letters  that  the  students  have  not  been  prac- 
ticing. 

b.  Time. 

The  drill  will  be  given  at  the  regular  shorthand  period  for  a  part  of 
that  period,  and  will  last  over  an  extended  time,  possibly  till  the  end  of 
the  course.  That  iteiu  can  be  determined  better  by  the  person  who  has 
the  work  in  charge  and  has  an  opportunity  to  see  how  things  are  working 
out. 

c.  Periods. 

The  periods  should  be  the  regular  shorthand  periods.  Care  should  be 
taken,  however,  in  arranging  the  schedule,  to  see  that  one  section  is  not  at 
a  disadvantage  so  far  as  fatigue  is  concerned,  when  it  reports  for  its 
shorthand  work.     See  p.  56  ff. 

One  teacher  should  have  both  sections. 

d.  Subject-matter. 

Both  sections  will  pursue  the  regular  shorthand  course  ;  only  one  sec- 
tion will  have  drill  on  the  list  of  words  and  phrases.  Of  course,  this  will 
mean  that  some  other  work  must  be  omitted  from  the  period.  It  is  sug- 
gested that  whatever  drill  has  regularly  been  given  to  the  classes  be 
omitted  for  this  section  and  that  drill  on  the  list  of  words  and  phrases 


i62  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

be  substituted.  If  no  drill  had  been  given  at  all,  and  the  class  was  simply 
conducted  by  taking  dictation  and  reading  back,  there  will  have  to  be  less 
dictation  and  reading  back,  to  allow  time  for  the  drill. 

The  letters  collected  for  the  list  would  make  good  dictation  material,  if 
the  consent  of  the  firms  could  be  obtained  for  that  purpose.  The  regular 
dictation  book  used  in  the  school  should  also  be  used  for  both  sections. 

e.     Details  of  Procedure. 

i 

No  particular  instructions  are  necessary,  except  that  the  teacher  try  to 
keep  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible  the  work  of  the  two  sections  outside  of 
the  drill  material. 

If  there  are  any  interruptions  at  the  time  the  final  test  is  taken,  note 
thereof  should  be  made.     See  p.  59  fif. 

2.     Form. 

The  balance  of  the  outline  applies  uniformly  to  all  experiments  and  is 
covered  fully  on  p.  62  If. 

c.     BOOKKEEPING. 

Experiment  No.   I.     Gradation  in  ^Mastery. 

I.     FORMULATION 

I.     Introduction. 

a.     General  Statement. 

In  teaching  a  number  of  subjects  there  are  two  distinct  methods  fol- 
lowed by  teachers.  By  the  one  method  the  pupil  absolutely  masters  each 
step  before  he  proceeds  to  the  next.  By  the  other,  the  pupil  goes  to 
the  end  of  a  stage  and  then  the  lost  ends  are  picked  up;  in  the  review 
those  things  are  cleared  up  which  he  did  not  understand. 

Very  often  things  resolve  themselves  not  into  a  question  of  one  method 
or  the  other,  but  of  a  combination  of  the  two. 

In  the  present  case,  consideration  will  be  given  to  the  following  ques- 
tion :  Is  bookkeeping  taught  with  better  results  by  mastering  step  by  step 
or  by  proceeding  to  the  completion  of  a  suitable  section  of  the  subject 
and  then  picking  up  lost  ends  ? 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  163 

b.     Survey  of  Experiments  Made. 

The  search  has  revealed  no  experiments  in  the  held  of  bookkeeping  tak- 
ing up  the  consideration  of  Gradation  in  Mastery. 

2.     Specific  Statement. 

This  experiment  is  undertaken  with  the  idea  of  trying  to  determine 
whether  better  results  are  obtained  when  each  step  in  the  study  of  book- 
keeping is  mastered  before  proceeding,  or  whether  better  results  are  ob- 
tained when  each  stage  of  the  subject  is  taught  without  halting  for  abso- 
lute mastery  of  the  steps,  depending  on  the  review  to  clear  up  those 
matters  which  any  of  the  students  did  not  grasp. 

II.     SELECTION   OF   LABORATORY 

I.     Groups    Chosen. 

For  this  experiment  beginning  students  in  bookkeeping  should  be  select- 
ed. The  two  methods  would  not  apply  to  advanced  bookkeeping,  because 
that  is  more  a  matter  of  understanding  how  the  rules  are  applied  to  the 
various  lines  of  business  and  to  concerns  of  different  sizes. 

It  might  be  tried  with  pupils  of  the  junior  high  school,  of  the  regular 
high  school,  and  of  business  schools. 

The  results  in  the  different  schools  may  show  a  difference,  due  to 
the  maturity  of  the  students. 

2.     Schools  Chosen. 

It  may  be  that  pupils  of  a  certain  type  succeed  better  with  one  method 
than  with  the  other.  Therefore,  the  experiment  should  be  tried  on  pupils 
of  as  many  different  types  as  possible  ;  in  each  case,  however,  being  very 
careful  to  note  fully  the  type  of  pupil,  so  that  if  the  results  do  not  agree, 
we  may  look  for  some  light  in  the  different  types  and  possibly  find  the 
principle  that  operates  in  this  connection.  For  instance,  i)ossibly  in  a 
school  where  the  students  were  chiefly  born  of  illiterate  Slavs  or  Russians, 
one  method  might  work  better  than  the  same  one  would  with  a  high  type 
American  home  as  the  base.  Children  steeped  with  the  German  idea  of 
thoroughness  might  advruice  more  rapidly  by  thoroughly  mastering  every 
step.  They  may  become  absolutely  confused  if  they  do  not  master  the 
preceding  steps. 


i64  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

b.  Accessibility. 

The  school  should  be  accessible  to  the  experimenter,  as  mentioned  on  p. 
36  ff. 

c.  Co-operation. 

The  necessary  co-operation  should  exist,  as  referred  to  on  p.  38  ff. 

3.     Teacher  Chosen. 

The  same  teacher  should  have  charge  of  both  sections,  so  that  the  ques- 
tion of  personality  will  not  enter  into  the  results.     See  p.  41  ff. 

III.     CHOICE  OF   CONDUCTOR 

As  mentioned  above,  the  regular  teacher  in  charge  of  the  class  should 
be  the  conductor  of  the  experiment.    See  p.  44  ff'. 

IV.     DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  PROCEDURE 
T .     Content. 

a.  Difffculties. 

Equalization  Test. 

No  equalization  test  seems  necessary.  If  we  did  give  one,  it  would  have 
to  be  a  test  in  ability  to  do  bookkeeping.  By  our  hypothesis  the  students' 
knowledge  of  bookkeeping  is  nil,  since  we  are  to  try  the  experiment  on 
beginners.*  Therefore  none  of  them  will  have  any  knowledge  of  book- 
keeping except  such  as  are  repeaters,  or  at  some  other  time  have  had 
bookkeeping.  They,  of  cotirse,  must  be  eliminated  from  the  records.  They 
may  take  the  work  in  the  regular  course  with  the  others,  and  may  even 
take  the  tests,  but  the  results  of  their  tests  are  not  to  be  counted. 

To  balance  any  other  factors  which  may  cause  inequality,  the  experi- 
ment will  have  to  be  conducted  on  a  large  scale. 

Final  Test. 

The  final  test  should  be  a  fair  test  of  the  student's  knowledge  of  book- 
keeping up  to  a  certain  point.     See  p.  166. 

A  little  time  should  elapse  after  the  review  before  the  final  test  is  given. 

*See  p.  163. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  165 

'Otherwise  the  matter  mi_£^ht  he  too  fresh  in  the  minds  of  the  students  who 
just  completed  the  review. 

b.     Time. 

The  experiment  is  to  be  conducted  for  such  length  of  time  as  may  be 
felt  can  be  given  to  it.  It  will,  at  least,  have  to  cover  a  particular  section 
of  the  subject  to  the  point  where  a  review  could  profitably  be  given.  If 
one  section  takes  much  longer  than  the  other  and  does  not  get  it  as  thor- 
oughly by  the  tests,  the  first  would  seem  to  have  the  better  method. 

c.  Periods. 

The  periods  would  be  the  regular  ones  of  the  class.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  see  that  one  section  does  not  meet  at  a  period  when  it  is  more 
fatigued  than  the  other  section.     See  p.  56  iT. 

d.  Subject-matter. 

The  subject-matter  to  be  used  for  instruction  and  test  would  depend 
upon  the  part  of  bookkeeping  to  l)e  covered. 

The  study  of  debits  and  credits  for  all  kinds  of  transactions,  entries 
being  made  in  the  journal,  might  be  one  phase. 

In  the  one  section,  the  general  rule  for  debits  and  credits  will  be  given 
and  explained.  Then,  without  stopping  to  master  il,  the  class  will  ])ro- 
ceed  w'ith  the  rule  for  debiting  and  crediting  Cash,  say,  and  then  for 
Mdse.,  Personal  Accounts,  Interest,  Discount.  Expense,  etc.,  all  entries 
being  made  in  the  journal.  (If  the  text  book  in  use  does  not  give  this 
order,  follow  the  text  book). 

In  the  other  section,  the  general  rule  for  debits  and  credits  will  be 
given  and  explained.  The  students  will  master  it  and  will  not  proceed 
until  the  rule  is  thoroughly  understood  and  mastered.  (  Complicated  trans- 
actions should  not  be  used).  When  that  is  done,  the  students  will  be 
given  the  rule  for  debiting  and  crediting  Cash  and  will  master  it  thor- 
oughly. In  the  same  way  will  be  given  the  rule  for  ]\Idse.,  then  for  Per- 
sonal Accounts,  etc. 

At  the  end  of  the  time  necessary  for  this,  or  at  the  end  of  the  time 
available,  both  sections  will  be  given  the  same  test  and  tlie  results  will  be 
compared.  Of  course,  the  test  should  be  on  the  material  that  was  being 
studied.  For  instance,  a  test  might  be  given  involving  ten  entries,  includ- 
ing the  following  transactions:  cash  received,  cash  ])aid  out.  a  debit  or  a 


i66  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

credit  to  a  personal  account,  Mdse.  purchased  or  sold  both  for  cash  and 
on  account,  etc. 

In  scoring  the  papers,  the  debits  and  the  credits  will  be  the  important 
items.  If  the  debit  is  correct,  i  point  will  be  counted;  if  the  credit  is 
correct,  i  point  will  be  counted. 

The  students  will  not  be  given  any  arithmetic  in  the  tests.  All  the 
addition,  subtraction,  multiplication  and  division  will  be  done  for  them 
because  this  is  not  a  test  in  arithmetic  and  nothing  which  might  be  a 
disturbing  factor  should  enter  into  the  test.  A  student  may  understand 
the  bookkeeping  part  of  the  transaction  and  yet  not  do  his  arithmetic 
correctly.  He  is  not  an  efficient  bookkeeper,  to  be  sure,  but  that  question 
is  not  to  be  decided  by  the  test.  The  object  of  the  test  is  to  ascertain 
whether  or  not  he  knows  the  principles  of  bookkeeping — the  debits  and 
credits.  There  would  be  no  sense  in  testing  his  arithmetic  to  get  this 
information. 

There  should  be  an  explanation  written  in  the  book  as  parL  of  the  entry,, 
of  course,  but  it  is  suggested  that  no  account  l)e  taken  of  this  in  the  scor- 
ing, for  the  reason  that  it  was  not  emphasized  in  the  work  in  mind. 
Furthermore,  it  applies  to  all  entries  alike,  and  if  the  student  understands 
the  transaction  and  knows  what  is  called  for  in  writing  the  explanation, 
there  should  be  no  trouble  in  getting  that  correct. 

In  choosing  another  phase  of  elementary  bookkeeping,  the  study  of  the 
uses  of  the  different  books  might  be  taken.  For  this,  however,  an  ec[uali- 
zation  test  would  be  necessary.  Debits  and  credits  must  be  understood 
for  this  work  and  it  would  be  poor  procedure  to  put  into  one  section  all 
those  who  thoroughly  knew  debiting  and  crediting,  while  the  other  sec- 
tion contained  those  students  who  did  not  know  it  so  well.  A  test  involv- 
ing the  knowledge  of  debits  and  credits  should  l)e  given,  and  the  sec- 
tions formed  on  the  basis  of  this  test,  putting  an  equal  number  of  each 
grade  of  student  into  each  section. 

After  the  sections  have  been  formed,  the  procedure  would  be  as  fol- 
lows : 

The  use  of  the  cash  book  would  be  explained,  the  sales  book,  the  invoice 
book,  etc. — whichever  books  the  text  gives  and  in  the  order  given  in  the 
text. 

In  the  one  section  each  book  would  be  mastered  before  proceeding  to 
the  next. 

In  the  other  section  the  plan  would  require  going  from  one  book  to  the 
next,  without  any  delay,  and,  after  all  the  ground  has  been  covered,  a 
review  would  be  given  to  clear  up  the  unsettled  points. 

^\'hen  this  has  been  done,  a  test  would  be  given,  which  would  consist  of 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  167 

a  number  of  transactions  covering  the  important  kinds  that  have  been 
studied.  The  student  would  be  told  to  enter  them  properly  in  the  re- 
spective books.  Paper  should  be  given  the  students,  properly  ruled  and 
named,  i.  e.,  Cash  Book,  Salesbook,  etc.  (This  would  reduce  the  number 
of  disturbing  elements.)  The  transactions  should  not  involve  any  arith- 
metic nor  complicated  wording  that  would  give  the  student  dit^culty  in 
understanding  the  transaction.  We  are  trying  to  test  the  student's  ability 
to  make  the  proper  entries  in  the  proper  books,  for  ordinar\-  business 
transactions  as  they  would  occur  in  business.  We  are  not  trying  to  test 
his  ability  to  work  out  puzzles,  as  is  the  practice  of  some  of  the  text  books. 
The  transactions  should  be  plainly  stated  so  as  not  to  inject  any  factors 
whicii  will  confuse  the  student. 

In  marking  the  papers,  the  following  basis  is  suggested : 

If  the  correct  book  is  used,  count  4  points,  because  that  is  the  ele- 
ment on  which  the  stress  was  laid. 

If  the  correct  account  has  been  debited,  count  i  point. 

If  the  correct  account  has  been  credited,  count  i  point. 

If  the  student  used  the  proper  name  of  the  account,  for  instance, 
John  Smith,  and  put  it  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  cash  book,  it 
would  seem  as  though  we  should  count  one  right  and  one 
wrong.  His  mistake  was  in  the  cash  part  of  the  transaction. 
The  John  Smith  part  was  made  correctly.  It  was  put  on  the 
wrong  side.  Many  students  are  taught  to  decide  on  what 
side  of  the  Cash  Book  to  make  the  entry,  and  then  to  enter  the 
name  of  the  other  account.  Unless  special  emphasis  was  laid 
on  handling  this  as  two  separate  entries  (a  Dr.  and  a  Cr.),  we 
can  hardly  count  both  wrong. 

The  explanation,  written  in  the  explanation  column,  will  also  give 
us  trouble.  It  does  not  seem  proper,  for  the  i)urpose  of  the 
test,  to  count  this. 

First,  because  many  students  consider  it  the  least  important  part  of 
the  entry,  and  so  possibly  it  is.  Because  they  consider  it  thus, 
it  is  the  last  thing  they  write  and  the  one  to  which  they  give 
least  thought.  They  are  particular  about  the  amount,  the  Dr., 
the  Cr.,  and  the  date. 

Because  they  give  it  so  little  thought,  the  entry  does  not  always  in- 
dicate what  they  know  about  it. 

We  are  searching  for  what  the  student  knows,  and  this  item  is 
likely  to  make  us  more  trouble  in  this  respect  than  it  is  worth 


i68  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

It  is  a  part  of  every  entry,  and  when  the  student  once  understands 
it  thoroughly,  there  should  be  no  trouble  in  his  applying  it  to 
any  transaction  whatever.  Whereas,  suppose  he  does  not  un- 
derstand the  principle  back  of  the  explanation,  and  gets  it 
wrong  in  every  one  of  the  ten  transactions  given  in  the  test, 
he  is  penalized  ten  times  for  a  single  item,  which  makes  his 
record  look  worse  than  it  is.  It  does  not  mean  that  his  knowl- 
edge of  bookkeeping  is  ten  times  less  than  the  boy  who  got  one 
Dr.  wrong.  They  both  missed  in  one  particular,  but  in  the 
case  of  the  one  student  that  one  particular  was  repeated  ten 
times. 

Furthermore,  consider  an  entry  like  this :  an  entry  is  properly 
made  on  the  credit  side  of  the  Cash  Book  except  that  the  ex- 
planation reads  "Received  on  account."  whereas  the  money 
was  "Paid  on  account."  The  manner  in  which  the  student  has 
handled  his  other  receipts  and  expenditures  shows  that  he 
understands  how  to  handle  the  matter,  but  that  this  was  mere- 
ly a  slip.  He  unthinkingly  puts  down  something  that  he  does 
not  intend. 

If  it  is  decided  to  count  the  explanations,  then  our  next  difficulty 
is,  how  are  we  going  to  count  this  one  ? 

We  are  convinced  that  the  student  knows  how  to  make  the  entry. 
If  we  are  trying  by  our  test  to  ascertain  what  he  knows,  there 
is  only  one  thing  to  do.     ^^'e  are  satisfied  he  knows  it  and  we 
must,  therefore,  count  it  right. 

But  the  paper  does  not  show  his  knowledge  in  that  particular  in- 
stance, though  it  does  in  some  others.  If  we  count  it  right  for 
him,  there  may  be  others  who  should  also  be  counted  right,  if 
we  knew  the  facts.  Here  is  the  flaw  of  our  ])resent  method 
for  testing  students,  and  it  may  be  responsible  for  a  great 
many  discrepancies  in  the  results  of  experiments  in  Educa- 
tion. 

However,  we  are  more  concerned  with  obtaining  a  record  of  facts 
as  they  exist  than  wn'th  scrupulously  adhering  to  any  method 
of  marking,  which  in  reality  is  simply  thought  to  be  a  means 
to  an  end.  If  we  know  this  one  instance  where  the  paper 
does  not  show  facts,  we  should  count  it  correct,  for  then  our 
marks  will  be  at  least  one  point  nearer  the  true  state  of  alTairs 
than  they  would  be  if  we  marked  according  to  the  traditional 
manner. 

All  this  argument  can  be  avoided  by  simply  paying  no  attention  to 
the  Explanation  Column  in  marking  the  test  j^apers.     The  stu- 
dent should  know  it  to  be  a  proficient  bookkeeper,  but  because 
of  the  nature  of  the  thing,  it  does  not  concern  us  in  the  tests 
for  this  experiment. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  169 

e.     Details  of  Procedure. 

Ill  the  instructions  given  to  the  teachers,  the  method  of  marking  the 
papers  should  be  clearly  explained,  as  well  as  the  method  of  conducting 
the  classes. 

If  it  is  found  that  one  section  is  slower  than  the  other  in  covering  the 
ground  mapped  out,  thf  time  limit  will  have  to  be  extended  for  the  slow 
section.  Tt  would  then  l)e  a  question  as  to  whether  or  not  the  slow  sec- 
tion understands  the  work  more  thoroughly.     The  tests  should  tell. 

For  interruptions,  etc.,  see  p.  59  fif. 

2.     Form. 

The  balance  of  the  outline  applies  uniformly  to  all  experiments  and  is 
covered  fully  on  p.  62  ff. 

c.     BOOKKEEPING. 

Experiment  No.  2.     Use  of  Suggesters. 

I.     FORMULATION 
I.      Introduction. 

a.     General  Statement. 

Dr.  A.  Duncan  'S'ocum.  Professor  of  Educational  Research  at  the  L^ni- 
versity  of  Pennsylvania,  has  for  some  time  believed  that  much  would  l)e 
gained  by  the  pupil  if  he  were  helloed  in  his  work  by  the  use  of  sug- 
gesters. 

By  "suggesters"  Dr.  \()cum  means  some  main  topics — three  or  four  or 
five,  not  many — in  any  subject,  around  which  the  student  can  organize 
the  material  both  in  studying  and  in  recalling.  Ilie  topics  must  be  broad 
enough  sn  that  they  can  carry  through  the  greater  part  of  the  subject,  at 
least. 

For  instance,  in  Commercial  Geography,  there  are  four  main  topics 
which  the  student  should  have  in  mind  when  studying  the  subject,  and 
each  time  he  comes  to  the  consideration  of  a  new  cmtntry,  he  should  look 
for  this  information,  namely: 

1  Xanira!   advantages   or   disadx'antages 

2  Production 

3  Manufactures 

4  Transportation 


170  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

He  should  group  his  information  around  them  and  thus  get  good 
interconnection  for  re-call. 

When  heing  tested  on  the  suhject.  he  can  use  these  suggesters  for  an 
outline,  about  which  to  organize  his  material.  It  gives  the  student  some- 
thing definite,  about  which  to  arrange  and  group  his  thoughts. 

From  experiments  already  tried  in  other  fields  it  is  shown  that  this 
is  a  better  method  than  the  old  way.  Dr.  Yoctuu  would  like  to  have  the 
theory  tried  out  in  as  many  fields  as  possible. 

In  bookkeeping  the  use  of  suggesters  would  seem  to  be  of  considerable 
advantage  and  to  ascertain  this  definitely  this  experiment  is  undertaken, 
b.     Survey  of  Experiments  Made. 

No  record  has  been  found  of  the  use  of  suggesters  otitside  of  the 
group  attending  Dr.  Yocum's  Seminar. 

A  list  of  the  experiments  conducted  along  this  line  is  given  by  Dr. 
Yocum  in  his  article  "The  Most  Immediate  Concern  of  Educational 
Research  During  the  Struggle  for  Democracy."  which  appeared  in  "School 
and  Society,"  Vol.  VII,  No.  163,  pp.  151-156,  Feb.  9,  1918,  as  follows: 

Experiment  by  Saml.  L.  Chew 

"  A.  S.  Martin,  using  suggesters  for  a  manufactur- 
ing city 
"  P.  A.  Boyer 
"  "  R.    F.    Stevens,    using    suggesters    for    mechanical 

powers  in  high  school  physics 
"  "  Dowett  Sondberg,  using  suggesters  for  climate 

"  "  Wm.  J.  Lowry,  using  suggesters  for  the  topic 

Progress  in  Useful  Arts 
"  "  Mrs.  Scott  Anderson,  using  suggesters  in  the  kin- 


dergarten 


c.     Differentiation. 


The  same  general  plan  which  was  used  in  the  above-named  experi- 
ments will  be  used  in  the  present  one. 

2.     Specific  Statement. 

This  experiment  is  undertaken  to  try  to  determine  whether  or  not  the 
use  of  suggesters  in  the  study  of  bookkeeping  would  make  for  efficiency. 

II.     SELECTION   OF   LABORATORY 

I.     Groups   Chosen. 

The  pupils  chosen  for  this  experiment  should  be  beginners  in  book- 
keeping, although  suggesters  could  also  be  found  for  the  use  of  some- 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  171 

what  advanced  students,  as,  for  instance,  suggesters  covering  the  study 
of  notes  and  drafts. 

2.     Schools    Chosen. 

It  would  he  well  to  try  this  in  as  many  schools  as  possible.     See  p.  35  ff. 

3.     Teachers   Chosen. 

There  will  be  two  sections  of  each  class  and  one  teacher  will  lie  in 
charge.  She  must  be  a  teacher  capable  of  handling  two  different  methods 
for  the  same  subject,  and  must  be  willing  to  go  to  the  extra  trouble 
•of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  suggesters  herself. 

She  must  also  meet  the  general  requirements  laid  down  on  p.  41  ft'. 

III.     CHOICE  OF  CONDUCTOR 

The  regular  teacher  would  be  the  most  likely  person  for  condticting  the 
work,  as  she  is  familiar  with  the  pupils  and  the  work  extends  over  too 
long  a  period  to  have  a  strange  person  take  it. 

See  p.  44  ft. 

IV.     DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  PROCEDURE 
I.     Content. 

a.     Difficulteis. 
Equalization  Test. 

Two  sections  of  the  class  are  necessary  and  they  will  have  to  be 
equalized. 

First,  we  must  eliminate  all  those  who  have  had  bookkeeping  in  any 
form  or  quantity.  Of  course,  if  there  are  any  in  the  class  who  do  not 
understand  English  well  enough,  they  must  also  be  eliminated  from  the 
results. 

The  remaining  ones  will  then  form  the  group  to  be  used  in  the  experi- 
ment. 

The  knowledge  of  bookkeeping  possessed  by  the  students  is  nil.  by  our 
hypothesis. 

Their  ability  to  do  bookkeeping  should  be  tested,  but  we  have  no  test 


172  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

for  that  purpose.  It  would  take  considerable  time  to  procure  one.  It 
would  be  necessary  first  to  devise  a  suitable  test,  and  then  to  try  it  out  for 
a  few  years,  to  see  whether  it  really  is  practical. 

Under  these  conditions,  the  only  thing  that  can  be  done,  after  eliminat- 
ing those  with  previous  knowledge  of  the  subject,  is  to  have  the  experi- 
ment tried  on  such  a  large  scale  that  the  individual  differences  will  be  ab- 
sorbed. 

Final  Test. 

The  final  test  should  be  on  material  that  was  covered  in  the  work,  and 
should  be  marked  on  the  basis  of  bookkeeping  only.     See  p.  173. 

b.  Time. 

The  work  will  be  done  at  the  time  assigned  for  the  regular  bookkeeping 
classes.  It  is  difficult  to  say  what  the  duration  of  the  experiment  should 
be.  The  chief  difficulty  is  that  if  too  long  a  time  is  taken  to  cover  a  sub- 
ject, there  will  have  been  so  much  time  that  both  sections  could  not  help 
but  get  the  subject-matter.  A  method  that  is  more  efficient  does  not  show 
forth  in  that  case.  The  outline  of  suggesters  given  is  one  that  practically 
covers  elementary  bookkeeping.  It  might  be  desirable  to  give  a  test  after 
the  debits  and  credits  are  learned,  one  after  posting  has  been  learned,  and 
another  after  closing  has  been  learned. 

If  it  is  found  that  the  section  using  the  suggesters  can  proceed  more 
rapidly  than  the  other,  and  comes  out  just  as  well  in  the  tests,  that  would 
be  a  ])oint  in  favor  of  the  suggesters. 

c.  Periods. 

The  periods  should  be  the  regular  bookkeeping  periods.  Neither  sec- 
tion should  be  at  a  disadvantage  on  account  of  fatigue,  etc.,  as  explained 
on  p.  56  ff. 

d.  .Subject-matter. 

The  subject-matter  will  be  the  regular  bookkeeping  work  of  the  class. 

One  section  will  follow  it  just  as  the  work  of  the  class  would  have  been 
carried  on  had  nothing  been  known  of  suggesters. 

The  other  section  will  be  given  the  suggesters  and  will  be  drilled  in  their 
use  in  connection  with  their  regular  work.  This  section  must  be  told  not 
to  give  their  suggesters  to  the  other  section  or  to  even  mention  them  to  the 
other  pupils. 

The  suggesters  should  be  in  the  hands  of  the  students.     They  may  copy 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  173- 

them  from  the  board  or  mimeographed  copies  may  be  handed  to  them.  The 
students  should  have  the  suggesters  before  them  whenever  doing  book- 
keeping and  should  make  constant  use  of  them.  The  suggesters  should  be 
impressed  upon  the  minds  of  the  students  as  much  as  possible.  The  lesson 
should  be  explained  in  the  light  of  the  suggesters  and  the  answers  should 
be  called  for  in  the  light  of  the  suggesters.  They  should  be  hammered 
home  so  that  the  pupils  cannot  help  but  think  in  terms  of  them. 

The  following  suggesters  could  be  used  with  beginners  in  bookkeeping: 

For  work  in  books  of  original  entry : 

In  considering  the  entry  for  a  transaction, 

Decide :  WHAT  BOOK 
WHAT  DR. 
WHAT  CR. 
Then  make  the  entry,  adding  amount,  date,  explanation. 

In  POSTING,  we  must  learn 
WHEN  to  post 
WHAT  to  post 
HOW  to  post,  i.  e.,  whether  it  goes  to  Dr.  or  Cr.  side. 

In  CLOSING  or  ruling  off,  we  must  learn 
W^HAT  i.  e.,  which  accounts,  to  close 
WHEN  i.  e.,  at  what  periods,  (Personal  Accts.  whenever  they^ 

balance,  etc.) 
HOW  i.  e.,  which  columns  to  rule  off,  which  single  and  which 

double. 

The  words  in  capitals  are  the  suggesters.  The  rest  is  simply  added  by 
way  of  explanation  and  to  show  how  the  words  are  interpreted.  The  whole 
scheme  should  be  given  to  the  class,  but  the  suggesters  are  the  words  that 
should  be  emphasized  and  drilled  on. 

The  following  scheme  for  marking  the  test  papers  is  suggested  : 

Book,  if  it  is  in  the  projier  bonk,  give  the  student  i  point 
Dr.,  if  the  proper  account  is  debited,  give  the  student  i  point 
Cr.,  if  the  proper  account  is  credited,  give  the  student  i  jjoint 
Entry,  if  the  entry  is  correctly  made  so  far  as  date,  amount,  and 
explanation  is  concerned,  give  the  student  I  point 
If  any  of  these  three  parts  of  the  entry  is  lacking,  give  O 

In  Posting. 

When,  if  answered  correctly,  give  the  student  i  point 
How,  if  posted  to  proper  side,  give  the  student  i  point 
What,  if  amount,  date,  and  postmarking  are  correct,  give  the  stu- 
dent I  point 


174  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

In  closing. 

What,  if  the  correct  account  is  closed,  give  i  point 

When,  if  it  is  closed  at  proper  time,  give  i  point 

How,  if  the  ruling  is  properly  done,  and  amounts  put  in  where  they 

belong,  give  i  point 
(The  question  arises,  shall  we  count  the  addition  in  considering  the 

amounts,  or  simply  the  place  where  the  amounts  are  put  ?    It  is 

suggested  that  the  addition  be  disregarded  for  the  purpose  of 

this  test.) 

e.     Details  of  Procedure. 

The  instructions  to  the  teachers  should  contain  a  caution  regarding  the 
care  that  must  be  used  lest  the  methods  be  mixed  and  the  suggesters  be 
used  with  the  section  that  is  not  to  have  them. 

The  suggesters  must  be  kept  from  the  section  not  supposed  to  use 
them.  This  may  prove  a  difficult  thing  in  some  places.  It  did  not  prove 
so  when  tried  out  in  West  Chester,  Pa.  The  teacher  will  have  to  use  her 
ingenuity  to  meet  this  situation.  If  it  does  happen  that  the  suggesters 
do  get  into  the  hands  of  the  wrong  section,  a  note  of  the  fact  should  l)e 
made  in  the  report.  A  good  plan  would  be  for  each  section  to  keep  from 
the  other,  the  work  they  are  doing. 

Record   of    interruptions,   during   test,    should   be   made,   etc.      See   p. 

59  ff- 

2.     Form. 
The  balance  of  the  outline  applies  uniformly  to  all  experiments  and  is 
covered  fully  on  p.  62  ff. 

c.     BOOKKEEPING 

Experiment  No.  3.     The  Use  of  Forms  in  Bookkeeping  Compared  with 
the  Use  of  Text  Book  Only. 

I.     FORMULATION 
I.     Introduction. 

a.     General  Statement. 

As  one  takes  up  a  bookkeeping  text  book,  he  will  often  find  in  the 
preface,  a  statement  to  the  effect  that  the  book  is  so  arranged  that  it  can 
be  used  with  or  without  the  forms.  By  "forms"  it  means  handling  the 
actual  papers  that  would  be  used  in  business.     For  instance,  if  the  trans- 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  175 

action  is  one  which  involved  the  receiving  of  money,  the  student  will  ac- 
tually receive  the  money  ( a  slip  of  paper  about  the  size  of  a  regular 
greenback,  printed  somewhat  after  the  fashion  of  our  government  green- 
backs) or  he  may  actually  receive  the  check,  as  the  case  may  be.  If  it  is 
a  Notes  Receivable  transaction,  he  will  actually  handle  the  note  referred 
to,  etc. 

The  inexperienced  teacher  asks,  "Which  is  the  better  method?"  ScMiie 
teacher  of  experience  will  say,  "I  have  found  that  the  method  of  using 
the  forms  is  by  far  better."  It  is  merely  her  opinion,  at  best  based  upon 
observation,  more  or  less  accurate.  Some  teacher  may  actually  have 
tested  out  both  methods,  but  in  the  present  investigation  no  record  of  any 
has  been  found.  Therefore,  it  might  be  well  to  have  some  on  record, 
and  with  this  in  mind,  the  following  experiment  is  undertaken. 

b.     Survey  of  Experiments  Made. 

No  experiments  along  the  line  under  consideration  have  been  disclosed. 

2.     Specific  Statement. 

This  experiment  is  undertaken  to  try  to  determine  whether  or  not  the 
use  of  forms  in  bookkeeping  in  connection  with  the  text  book  is  better 
than  simply  using  the  text  without  the  forms.  By  "better"  is  meant  giv- 
ing a  more  thorough  understanding  of  transactions  and  bookkeeping. 

II.     SELECTION   OF   LABORATORY 

I.     Groups  Chosen. 

Any  beginners  in  bookkeeping  wotild  be  suitable  pupils  for  this  experi- 
ment. There  should  be  two  sections,  one  using  the  forms  and  one  not 
using    them. 

The  methods  should  be  tried  on  pupils  in  the  junior  high  school.  The 
more  concrete  method  might  work  l)etler  with  the  younger  students. 

2.  Schools  Chosen. 

Any  schools  having  the  necessary  conditions  for  co-operation,  etc., 
would  answer  the  purpose.     See  p.  35  IT. 

3.  Teachers  Chosen. 


176  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

One  teacher  should  be  in  charge  of  both  sections  of  a  class.  Any 
teacher  meeting  the  requirements  set  forth  on  p.  41  ff.  could  undertake 
the  work. 

III.     DEVELOPMENT  OF  PROCEDURE 

I.     Content. 

General  Plan. 

There  should  be  two  sections  (both  under  the  same  teacher),  one  tising 
the  forms  in  connection  with  the  text,  and  the  other  using  the  text  book 
only. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  equalize  the  sections  in  some  way,  or  conduct  the 
experiment  on  a  large  scale. 

The  instruction  given  by  the  teacher  should  be  the  same  for  both 
sections.  Of  cotirse.  good  pedagogy  wotild  require  that  when  she  ex- 
plains checks  or  notes,  etc.,  she  have  in  her  hand  a  paper  of  the  kind 
that  she  is  explaining,  no  matter  which  section  of  the  class  is  before  her. 
The  same  explanation  must  be  given  to  both  sections, 

A  final  test  would  be  given  on  the  work  covered  and  this  would  be  used 
as  to  the  basis  of  determining  the  value  of  the  two  methods. 

The  likelihood  is  that  the  section  not  using  the  forms  will  cover  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  ground  in  less  time  than  the  other  section.  W'e  cannot 
permit  both  the  time  element  and  the  grotmd  covered,  to  vary.  It  would 
be  easier  from  the  standpoint  of  making  out  the  test,  to  have  both  sections 
cover  a  certain  amoimt  of  ground  and  take  the  test  as  soon  as  they  have 
finished  it.  If  the  one  section  completes  the  work  first  and  makes 
a  better  showing  in  the  test,  we  shall  have  to  hand  the  palm  to  that 
method.  If  the  slower  method  shows  the  better  percentage  in  the  test,  it 
will  show  that  these  students  tmderstand  the  work  more  thorotighly.  Of 
course,  not  much  importance  should  be  attached  to  the  results  of  one  ex- 
periment. The  matter  should  be  tested  out  in  several  places,  and  if  it  is 
found  that  the  results  are  uniformly  alike,  we  can  speak  with  some  au- 
thority. There  may  be  a  number  of  vmknown  factors  hidden  beneath 
one  experiment,  which  may  not  be  brotight  to  light  until  the  work  is  tried 
again. 

a.     Difficulties. 

Equalization  Test. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  177 

In  the  matter  of  equalization  test,  it  w  ill  be  necessary  to  follow  the  same 
plan  as  in  the  preceding  experiment,  p.   171. 

Final  Test. 

At  the  completion  of  the  assigned  work,  a  final  test  will  be  given  to  each 
section.  The  test  should  be  based  on  the  subject-matter  as  far  as  the 
class  has  covered  it,  and  should  be  straight  bookkeeping.  The  transactions 
should  be  simply  stated  because  that  is  the  way  most  of  them  occur  in  Inis- 
iness. 

Complexly  worded  transactions  should  have  no  place  in  this  work.  To 
confuse  the  student  in  the  wording,  is  not  testing  his  knowledge  of  the 
way  to  handle  the  transaction  itself.  It  is  testing  his  ability  to  under- 
stand the  transaction,  not  his  ability  to  make  the  entry  for  it.  He  must 
understand  the  transaction  before  he  can  make  the  proper  entry,  and  if 
he  is  not  given  a  fair  chance  to  understand  it,  it  is  not  correct  to  charge 
that  against  his  knowledge  of  bookkeeping. 

As  little  arithmetic  shoidd  be  required  of  the  student  as  possible.  Time 
is  saved,  and  in  a  given  period  we  can  test  more  of  his  actual  bookkeeping 
knowledge,  if  he  is  not  obliged  to  use  up  the  time  by  doing  arithmetic.  To 
obtain  his  cash  balance,  however,  and  similar  items,  he  will  have  to  add 
the  columns  himself.  That  is  a  thing  we  cannot  do  for  him.  The  use  of 
round  figures  will  help  greatly. 

Properly  ruled  paper  would  also  help  to  expedite  matters.  One  need  not 
necessarily  mark  the  paper  to  show  what  book  it  represents,  but  it  would 
save  time  to  merely  have  the  paper  ruled  and  given  to  the  pupils.  The  pu- 
pil can  then  choose  the  kind  he  believes  should  be  used. 

In  marking  the  final  test,  tlie  following  method  is  suggested: 

If  the  transaction  is  entered  in  the  proper  book,  count  i  point. 

If  the  proper  account  is  debited,  count  i  point. 

If  the  proper  account  is  credited,  count  i  point. 

If  the  amount  is  correct,  count  i  point. 

If  the  explanation  is  put  in  the  proper  place  and  answers  the  pur- 
pose, count  I  ])oint. 

If  the  general  form  of  the  entry  is  correct,  i.  e.,  if  the  date  is  in  the 
proper  place,  explanation  in  the  proper  place,  debits  and  cred- 
its and  amounts  in  the  proper  places,  with  respect  to  columns, 
margins,  indentations,  etc.,  count   i   point. 

It  will  be  noted  that  no  count  is  given  for  neatness,  penmanship,  etc. 
Some  teachers  mark  heavily  for  these  items  in  grading  bookkeeping.  They 
are  necessary  for  a  good  bookkeeper  but  for  the  purpose  of  the  experi- 
ment they  may  be  ignored. 


178  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

b.  Time. 

The  work  would  take  place  during  the  regular  recitation  periods  for 
bookkeeping. 

The  test  would  be  given  each  section  as  it  finished  the  work  to  be  done. 

c.  Periods. 

The  regular  periods  would  answer  if  in  line  with  the  suggestions  set 
forth  an  p.  56  fit. 

d.  Subject-matter. 

The  subject-matter  would  be  the  regular  bookkeeping  work  of  the  text 
book  covered  by  the  pages  assigned. 

The  final  test  would  be  straight  bookkeeping  taken  from  the  ground 
covered.    See  p.  177  ft". 

e.  Details  of  Procedure. 

The  instructions  to  the  teachers  should  urge  caution  to  see  that  none  of 
the  work  is  done  outside  of  the  regular  bookkeeping  periods. 

Record  should  be  made  of  disturbances,  weather,  etc.,  during  both  the 
regular  class  periods  and  the  test  periods,  as  mentioned  on  p.  59  fif. 

2.     Form. 

The  balance  of  the  outline  applies  uniformly  to  all  experiments  and  is 
covered  fully  on  p.  62  fif. 

APPENDIX 

A  summary  of  the  International  Typewriting  Rules  coverning  errors 
and  the  marking  of  papers,  is  given  as  follows : 

All  writing  should  be  double  space  on  legal  size  paper. 

The  marginal  stops  should  be  set  so  as  to  make  the  writing  line  seventy 
spaces  long. 

Paragraphing  may  be  done  with  an  indentation  of  five  or  ten  spaces, 
but  must  be  uniform  throughout  the  work. 

In  all  matter  which  is  rewritten,  the  first  writing  only  will  be  consid- 
ered, the  rewritten  matter  being  penalized  as  an  error. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  179 

For  every  error  named  below,  *Five  Words  will  he  deducted  from  the 
total  nuinlxT  written: 
Striking  wrong  letter. 
Improper  spacing. 
Omission  of  word  . 
Transposition  of  words  or  letters. 
Piling  letters  at  the  end  of  line,  or  elsewhere. 
Failure  to  commence  line  at  starting  point. 

Deviation  from  copy  in  i)unctuation,  paragraphing,  capitalization,  etc. 
Inclined  margin,  caused  by  improper  insertion  of  paper. 
Faulty  use  of  shift  key. 
Undue  margin  at  bottom  of  sheet. 
But  one  error  shall  be  counted  in  any  one  word. 

SUGGESTIONS    FOR   MARKING   PAPERS 

^^'he^  counting  figures  a  word  is  allowed  for  each  group  of  three  figures 
— 50,000  is  counted  two  words. 

When  several  words  are  omitted,  each  omitted  word  should  be  counted 
an  error. 

When  a  line  or  sentence  is  rewritten,  the  first  writing  only  is  counted, 
but  the  rewritten  matter  should  be  penalized  as  one  error,  whether  it  be  a 
word,  a  line,  or  a  paragraph.  It  is  considered  that  the  time  consumed  in 
rewriting  is  sufficient  penalty.  If,  however,  the  rewritten  matter  itself 
contains  errors,  these  should  be  counted. 

The  student  cannot  correct  an  error  by  striking  one  letter  over  another. 
All  such  cases  should  be  ])enalized. 

Either  two  or  three  hyphens  should  be  used  to  indicate  a  dash,  never 
one,  even  if  spaces  are  left  on  each  side  of  it.  All  dashes  must  be  uniform 
throughout. 

Comj)Ounded  words  are  counted  as  man\  words  as  are  in  the  compound. 

Paragraphs  may  be  indicated  by  either  five  or  ten  spaces,  but  the  num- 
ber nuist  be  uniform  throughout  the  work. 

Either  two  or  three  spaces  may  be  made  after  a  period,  but  the  work 
must  be  uniform  throughout  in  this  respect :  similarly  either  two  spaces  or 
one  may  be  used  after  an  interrogation  point  or  an  exclamation  point  ac- 
cording to  the  habit  of  the  operator — but  it  must  be  uniform  throughout. 

When  words  arc  transposed  only  one  error  should  be  marked,  as  but 
one  word  is  out  of  place. 


*Increased  to  ten  in  1918  (or  17). 


i8o 


EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 


Words  iniproperl}-  divided  at  the  end  of  the  Hue  should  be  penaHzed. 

Both  insertion  and  omission  of  punctuation  points  are  errors,  but  where 
a  word  and  a  following  punctuation  point  are  both  omitted,  only  one  error 
is  counted,  the  point  being  treated  as  part  of  the  word. 

TABLE    SHOWING    THE    VARIABILITY    OP    PERFORMANCE    IN    TYPEWRIT- 
ING  TESTS 

Figures  given  are  the  number  of  words,  gross  and  net,  written  in  ten  minutes. 
The  same  copy  matter  was  used  each  time. 


1st 

Test 

2nd 

Test 

3rd 

Test 

4th 

Test 

Student 

gr. 

net 

gr. 

net 

gr. 

net 

g-r. 

net 

A 

518 

348 

529 

479 

564 

504 

551 

451 

B 

467 

347 

469 

389 

476 

406 

409 

319 

C 

540 

430 

550 

430 

545 

435 

D 

500 

400 

471 

261 

502 

342 

494 

214 

E 

448 

378 

458 

388 

479 

419 

P 

419 

219 

412 

112 

416 

331 

429 

259 

G 

506 

305 

541 

281 

492 

362 

H 

527 

487 

509 

459 

529 

459 

I 

564 

434 

572 

452 

583 

463 

J 

444 

354 

438 

358 

460 

400 

436 

346 

K 

533 

192 

488 

138 

547 

377 

524 

346 

L 

519 

300 

502 

72 

511 

321 

520 

250 

M 

458 

318 

394 

154 

459 

329 

484 

374 

N 

477 

357 

430 

300 

518 

428 

402 

312 

O 

407 

247 

430 

310 

434 

344 

447 

347 

P 

492 

302 

506 

336 

491 

351 

Q 

427 

257 

466 

356 

433 

293 

444 

254 

R 

495 

345 

398 

368 

499 

410 

526 

416 

S 

507 

427 

525 

425 

525 

425 

550 

450 

T 

474 

323 

451 

221 

500 

260 

U 

497 

427 

527 

397 

531 

461 

520 

490 

Y 

484 

414 

469 

369 

485 

405 

513 

353 

W 

418 

368 

448 

408 

453 

393 

X 

489 

419 

486 

336 

523 

483 

498 

408 

Y 

528 

238 

509 

349 

500 

280 

512 

232 

Z 

549 

359 

532 

352 

520 

420 

553 

323 

A  A 

370 

270 

380 

190 

387 

337 

AB 

465 

395 

513 

443 

AC 

439 

379 

452 

372 

AD 

469 

380 

469 

420 

500 

410 

495 

420 

The  first  test  was  given  at  10:09  one  school  morning.  The  day  was  a 
dreary,   rainy  one.     Temperature   was  70. 

The  second  test  was  given  10:22  the  same  morning. 

The  third  test  was  given  the  day  following,  at  io:OQ  A.  M.  It  was  a 
bright  sunny  day.     Temperature  70. 

The  fourth  test  was  given  the  next  day  at  10:10  A.  ]\I.  It  was 
also  a  bright  sunny  day.  with  temperature  at  70. 

To  ascertain  whether  there  was  any  uniformity  in  the  length  of  the 
words  used  in  the  International  Typewriting  Contest  copy  matter,  several 
pages  were  picked  at  random  and  were  typewritten.     Legal  paper  was 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  i8i 

used,  a  line  was  drawn  the  length  of  the  paper  at  each  margin,  and  the 
words  were  written  as  close  to  the  margin  as  possible.  Paragraphs 
were  disregarded,  so  as  to  get  a  solid  block  of  typewriting.  The  count 
was  taken  at  the  end  of  the  33rd  line,  which  happened  to  be  the  last 
on  the  sheet.     The  result  was  as  follows : 

Page  a,  488  words 

b.  492   " 

c.  474 

d.  497 

e.  494 

f.  492 

g.  484 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Adams,  Cyrus  C,  Elementary  Commercial  Geography.     1909. 
Ayres,  Leonard  P., 

The  Binet-Simon  Measuring  Scale  for  Intelligence :    Some  Criticisms 
and  Suggestions. 

Laggards  in  Our  Schools.     1910. 

A  Measuring  Scale  for  x-\bility  in  Spelling.     191 5. 

Psychological  Tests  in  Vocational  Guidance.    Journal  of  Educational 
Psychology.    Apr.  191 3. 

The  Public  Schools  of  Springfield.  111.     1916. 

A  Scale  for  Measuring  the  Quality  of  Handwriting  of  School  Chil- 
dren.    191 5. 

Bagley,  ^^'.  C,  The  Educative  Process.     1905. 

Baker,  James  \\'.,  20th  Century  Bookkeeping  &  Accounting.     191 5. 

Barnes,  IMrs.  Arthur  J.,  Barnes'  Practical  Course  in  Benn  Pitman  Short- 
hand.   1914. 

Bartholomew,  W.  E.,  Eundamental  .\ims  in  the  Teaching  of  Bookkeep- 
ing.    The  Business  Journal.  Aug.  1916,  pp.  552-4. 

Bawden,  William  T..  The  Army  Trade  Tests.  Industrial  Education  Cir- 
cular No.  4.     Apr.  1919. 

Belknap,  Emmet,  The  High  School  in  its  Relation  to  Commercial  Educa- 
tion. Proceedings,  Associated  Academic  Principals.  Bulletin 
19,  June  1903,  Univ.  of  the  State  of  New  York. 

Binet-Simon,  A  Method  of  Measuring  the  Development  of  the  Intelli- 
gence of  Yotmg  Children.     Translated  by  Town. 

Book,  William  Frederick,  The  Psychology  of  Skill  with  Special  Ref- 
erence to  Its  Acquisition  in  Typewriting.  Univ.  of  Montana 
Publications,  Bulletin  No.  53.     1908. 

Boston  Chamber  of  Coiunierce.  Report  of  Committee  on  Commercial 
Education. 

Boston  Public  Schools.  Bulletins  of  the  Department  of  Educational  In- 
vestigation and  Measurement. 


i82  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

Bui.   VT.     English.   Determining  a   Standard  in  Accurate   Copying. 

Jan.  1916. 
Bui.  VII.     Arithmetic,   Determining  the  Achievement   of   Pupils   in 

the  Addition  of  Fractions.     ]\Iar.  1916. 
Bui.  IX.     Penmanship,  Determining  the  Achievement  of  Elementary 

School  Graduates  in  Handwriting.     1916. 
Bui.  X.     Arithmetic,  The  Courtis  Standard  Tests  in  Boston  191 2-1 5. 

An  Appraisal.     Nov.  1916. 
Bui.  XI.     Spelling.    The  Teaching  of  Spelling.     Dec.  1916. 
Bui.  XIII.    Arithmetic.    The  Value  to  the  Teacher,  to  the  Principal,. 

and  to  the  Superintendent  of  Individual  and  Class  Records  from 

Standard  Tests.     Dec.  191 7. 
Bui.   XV.     Arithmetic,   Determining  the   Achievement   of    Pupils   in 

Common  Fractions.     191 8. 
Bui.  XVI.     English.     Determining  the  Achievement  of  Pu])ils  in  Let- 
ter Writing.     June  19 18. 
Bui.    XVII.       Organization     and     Administration     of     Intermediate 

Schools  in  Boston.     Sept.  1918. 
Bui.  XVTII.     Arithmetic.     Practice  Exercises  in  Common  Fractions. 

Jan.  1919. 
Brigham,  Albert  Perry,  Commercial  Geography.     191 1. 
Brinton,  Willard  C,  Graphic  Methods  for  Presenting  Facts.     1919. 
Brown,  The  American  High  School. 
Bureau  of  Educational  Experiments. 

Camp  Liberty,  a  Farm  Cadet  Experiment.    Bui.  No.  7,  1918. 
Playthings.    Bui.  No.  i,  191 7. 
Bush,  I.  B.,  Efficiency  Tests  as  Applied  to  the  Work  of  the  Public  Schools, 

Proceedings,    Penna.    State    Ed.    Assn.,    Dec.    29-31,    191 4,    pp.^ 

165-66. 

Carnell  &  Hoit,  New  Practical  Shorthand  Manual.     1910. 

Carnegie   Foundation   for  the   Advancement   of   Teaching.     Bui.   No.   7.. 

Education  in  Vermont.     1914. 
Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington, 

Descripitve  Booklet,  Organization  and  Scope.     Feb.  28,  191 7. 
Classified  List  of  Publications,  Dec.  i,  191 7. 
Classified  List  of  Publications,  Aug.  30,  1919. 
Chapman  &  Rush,  The  Scientific  Measurement  of  Classroom  Products, 

1917. 
Chicago.     The  Board  of  Education  of  the  City  of  Chicago.     Educational 
Division.    A  Course  of  Study  for  the  High  Schools.    Aug.  1917. 
The  Board  of  Education  and  The  Chicago  Association  of  Commerce. 
Co-operative  Commercial  Education.     191 5. 
Cleveland    Chamber    of    Congress.      A    Report    with    Recommendations 
by  the  Committee  on  Education  of  the  Cleveland  Chamber  of 
Commerce.       Industrial    Education    in    the     Cleveland    Public 
Schools.     Apr.   13,  1914. 
The  Committee  on  Education.     Gary?  Apr.  2,  191 5. 


I 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  183 

Cody,  Sherwin, 

Commercial  Tests  &  How  to  Use  Them. 
100%  Speller.     1918. 

National  Business  Ability  Tests.    Bulletin  No.  i,  IMar.  191 5. 
Courtis,  Stuart  A.,  The  Gary  Public  Schools,  Measurement  of  Classroom 

Products.     General  Education  Board,  191 9. 
Crafts,  L.  W'.,  l')ibliography  of  Feeble-Mindedness  in  its  Social  Aspects. 
Journal  of   Psycho-Asthenics,  Monograph   Supplement,  Vol.   I, 
No.  3,  1917. 
Cross,  Allen.     Weighing  the  Scales.     The  English  Journal.     Mar.  191 7. 
Cutler,  Ida  McLenan,  and  SoRelle,  Rupert  P.,  Rational  Typewriting,  1910. 

Dearborn,  Walter  Fenno,  School  &  University  Grades.     Bulletin  of  the 
Univ.  of  Wisconsin,  No.  368,  High  School  Series  No.  9.     June 
1910. 
Dewey,  John,  The  Schools  of  To-morrow.     191 5. 
Doll,  E.  A., 

A  Brief  Binet-Simon  Scale.     The  Psychological  Clinic,  Vol.  XI,  Nos. 

7  &  8.     Dec.  15,  1917  &  Jan.  15,  1918. 
Form  Board  Speeds  as  Diagnostic  Age  Tests.     Journal  of  Psycho- 
Asthenics,  Vol.  XX,  Nos.  3.  4.     1916. 
Suggestions  on  the  Extension  of  the  Binet-Simon  Measuring  Scale. 

1913- 

Eliot.  Charles  W., 

Changes  Needed  in  American  Secondary  Education,      General  Edu- 
cation Board.     1916. 
Changes  Needed  in  American  Secondary  Education.     U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Education  Bulletin.     1916,  No.  10. 
Experimental   Schools,   Bureau  of   Educational   Experiments. 
Bulletin  No.  3,   191 7. 
Bulletin  No.  4,   1917. 
Bulletin   No.   5,   1917. 

Fisher.    Irving.    The   "Ratio"    Chart    for    IMotting    Stati.stics.     Quarterly 
Publications  of  the  American  Statistical  Association.     June  1917- 

Flexner,  Abraham,  A  Modern  School.     General  Education  Board.      1916. 

Flexner,  Abraham,  and  Bachman,  Frank  P.,  The  Gary  Schools,  A  Cien- 
eral  Account.      ic)i8.     General  Education  Board 
Public  Education  in  Maryland.     2nd  Edition.     The  General  Educa- 
tion   Board.      1916. 

Freeman,  F.  N..  The  Teaching  of  Handwriting.     In  Parker's  Methods  of 
Teaching  in  the  High  School,  p.  121  ff. 

Fritz,  Rose  L.,  and  Eldridge.  Edward  H.,  Expert  Typewriting.      1912. 

Fuller,  J.  F...  The  Typist.      191 8. 

Frazier,  D.  W  .,  Lualis  Method  of  Touch  l\v])ewriting.     1919. 

General   IMucation  Board.     Public  Education  in  Delaware.      1919- 
Gleason..   R.   P..  and   Chamberlain,  Amos.     ]Measuring  the    I'T'liciencv  of 


'to 


i84  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

Manual  Arts  Teaching.     Proceedings,   Penna.   State   Ed.   Assn. 

Dec.  29-31,  1914,  pp.  148-51. 
Goddard,  Henry  H., 

The  Adaptation  Board  as  a  Measure  of  IntelHgence.     The  Training 

School  Bulletin.     Feh.  1915. 
Bibliography  of  Mental  Deficiency.     The  Training  School  Bulletin, 

Vol.  VI,  No.  3.     May  1909. 
The  Binet  Tests  &  the  Inexperienced  Teacher.     The  Training  School 

Bulletin.     Mar.  191 3.  Vol.  X.  No.  i. 
Binet-Simon  Measuring  Scale  for  Intelligence.     Rev.  Ed.     191 1. 
The  Reliability  of  the  Binet-Simon  Measuring  Scale  of  Intelligence. 

1913- 
Standard  Method  for  Giving  the  Binet  Test.      191 3. 
Grady,  William  E.,  Experimenting  with  Children  under  the  Gary  Plan  in 
New    York   City.      The    Psychological    Clinic.     Mar.    15.    1916, 
Vol.  X,  No.  I.     19-26. 
Gregg,  John  Robert, 

Gregg  Shorthand,   Revised   Edition.      1902. 
Lessons  in  Shorthand  Penmanship.      1902. 
Gregg  Pub.  Co.,  Typewriting  Winners. 

Gregg  Shorthand  Federation.  Report  of  Committee  on  High  School 
Commercial  Course.     1914. 

Hammond,  L.  L.,  What  Business  Demands  in  Graduates.     Proceedings, 

Penna.  State  Ed.  Assn.     Dec.  29-31,  19 14.     pp.  271-4. 
Heffley,   Norman  P.,   Pitman  System  of   Phonography.     1895. 
Henmon,    V.   A.    C,   The    Present   Status   of    Education   as    a    Science. 

The    Problem    of    Educational    Psychology.     The    School    Review 

Monographs.     No.   11.     1912. 
Herrick.  Cheesman  A.,  Nichols,  F.  N.,  and  Thompson.  F.  \'..  Report  on 

Commercial   Education.      1918. 
Hollingworth,  H.  L.,  Vocational  Psychology.      1916. 
Home,  Psychological  Principles  of  Education.     1913. 
Howard,  Jerome  B.,  The  Phonographic  Amanuensis.     Rev.  Ed.     1918. 

James,  E.  J.,  The  Problem  of  Commercial  Education.     Dept.   Bui.   No. 

3,   43rd    L^niv.    Convocation    of    the    State    of    New    York.     June 

28-30,    1905.     pp.    11-36. 
Jenks,  J.  W.,  Education  for  Commerce  in  the  Far  East,     do.,  pp.  79-89. 
Johnston,  Chas.  H.,  and  others.     High  School  Education. 

Kahn,  Joseph,  and  Klein,  Joseph  J.,  Principles  and  ^lethods  in  Com- 
mercial  Education.      1914. 

King,  J.  E.,  Modern  Illustrative  Bookkeeping,  Revised  &  Enlarged.  In- 
troductory and  Advanced  Courses.     191 1. 

Lough,  James  E.,  Experimental  Psychology  in  Vocational  Guidance. 
Proceedings  of  Second  National  Conference  on  Vocational  Guid- 
ance. 


IN  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION  185 

Lyons,  J.  A.,  and  Read,  Walter  L.,  Lyons'  Bookkeeping.     1913. 
Lyon,   Leverett   S.,   A   Survey  of   Commercial   Education   in   the    Public 
High  Schools  of  the  U.  S.  1918. 

McClure,  George  S.,  Practical  Drills  in  Shorthand  Penmanshi}).      1909. 
McMurray,  F.,  How  to  Study  and  Teaching  How  to  Study.      1909. 
Manahan,  J.  L.,  A  Bibliography  of  Educational  Surveys  &  Tests.     Univ. 

of  Virginia  Record,  b^xtension  Series,  Vol.  II,  No.  3.     Nov.  1916. 
]\lartin.  A.  Leila,  A  Contribution  to  the  Standardization  of  the  De  Sanctis 

Tests.     The  Training  School  Bulletin.     June   1916. 
Miner,  George  W.,  Bookkeeping,   Introductory  &:   Intermediate   Courses. 

1916. 
Mitchell,    David,   and    Ruger,   Georgie   J.,    Psychological   Tests,   Revised 

and  Classified  Bibliographv.     Bureau  of  Educational  Experiments. 

Bui.   IX.     1918. 

National  Foreign  Trade  Convention.  Official  Report.     Jan.  25-27,  1917. 
Nelson,  Ernesto,  The  Secondary  School  and  the  University.     U.  S.  Bu- 
reau of  Education  Bulletin.      I()i6,  No.   10. 
New  York  Times, 

Sunday,  June  29,  1919.  Ingenious  Tests  of  Horse  Sense. 

May  II,  1919,  Intelligence  Tests.     Walter  T.  Marvin. 

Sunday  ^lagazine,  Feb.  16,  1919,  Secret  ^lind  Tests  of  the  Army. 

Sunday,  Oct.  19,  1919,  Valuation  of  Habits. 

Ogden,   R.   C.,    Industrial    Education    from   a    Layman's   Point   of   View. 

Dept.  Bui.  No.  3,  43rd  Univ.  Convocation  of  the  State  of  New 

York.     June  28-30,   1905,  pp.   51-58. 
O'Keefe,  David  H.,  Commercial  Educational  Statistics.     July  2,  1918. 
Otis,  Arthur  S.,  The  Otis  Group  Intelligence  Scale.    Edition  1919.     Form 

A.     Form  B. 

I'arker,  Benn  W.,  Rowe  Shorthand.      191 5. 

Parker,  Samuel  Chester,  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools.      1915. 

Philadelphia  Inquirer,  Sunday,  Feb.  9,  1919.  To  Keep  "Educated  Fools" 
Out  of   College.      (Columl)ia  Univ.    Entrance  Exams.) 

Piatt.  Charles  T.,  Pitmanic  Shorthand  Instructor.      1902. 

Public  Education  &  Child  Labor  Assn.  of  Penna. 
.Annual    kejxirt.      n;i8. 

In  the  Interests  of  tlie  Boys  and  Girls  of  Today — the  (^itizens  of  To- 
morrow. 

Pyle,  W.  II.,  Concentrated  vs.  Distributed  Practice.  Journal  of  Educa- 
tional   Psychology.     May   1914.     Vol.  W  p.  247. 

Richardson.  R.  F.,  The  Learning  Process  in  the  .Acquisition  of  Skill. 
Pedagogical  Seminar.     Sept.  1912.     Vol.  XIX,  pp.  376-394. 

Rochester  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Survey  of  Needs  in  Commercial  Ed- 
ucation. 


i86  EXPERIMENTAL  RESEARCH 

Rowe  Co.,  H.  M.,  The  Budget.     Dec.  1919.     Vol.  XXI,  No.  i.     Differ- 
ences of  Opinion,  p.  i. 
A  Study  of  Beginning  Work  in  Bookkeeping. 
Ruediger.   William   C,   Agencies    for  the   Improvement   of    Teachers   in 
Service.     U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin.     191 1,  No.  3. 
The  Present  Status  of  Education  as  a  Science.     The  Principles  of 
Education.     School    Review    Monographs.     No.    11.     1912. 

Sexton,  Chandler,  Graham's  Business  Shorthand.     191 /. 

Sheppard,  J.  J.,  The  Commercial  Program  in  Secondary  Education.  Dept. 
Bui.  No.  4.  44th  Univ.  Convocation  of  the  State  of  New  York. 
Oct.  25-7,   1906. 

Smith,  J.   Russell,   Commerce   &   Industry.      1916. 

Smith,  Stella  Marie,  Typewriting  Lessons,  I,  II,  III.  IV.     1906. 

Starch,  Daniel.  Experiments  in  Educational  Psychology,  Rev.  &  En- 
larged.     1919. 

Strayer,  George  Drayton,  Standards  &  Tests  for  Measuring  the  Efficiency 
of  Schools  or  Systems  of  Schools.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education 
Bulletin,  1913,  No.  13. 

Suhrie,  Amhrose  L.,  The  Inductive  Determination  of  Educational  Meth- 
ods.    191 5.    Warwick  &  York,  Inc.,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Swiggett,  Glen  Levin,  Commercial  Education,  A  Report  on  the  Commer- 
cial Education  Subsection  of  the  Second  Pan  American  Scientific 
Congress,  Dec.  191 5 — Jan.  1916.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education 
Bulletin,  1916.    No.  25. 

Swift,  E.  J.,  Mind  in  the  Making.     1908. 

Tanz,  Louis,  A  Method  of  Teaching  Bookkeeping.    The  Business  Journal. 

Aug.  1916.    pp.  555-556.  ^ 
Teachers'  Year  Book  of  Educational  Investigations.     191 4,  Bui.  No.   i. 
Department  of  Education,  The  City  of  New  York,  Division  of 
Reference  &  Research, 
do.  1 91 6,  Publication  No.  14. 
Terman,  L.  M.,  The  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child,  Riverside  Educ.  Text- 
books. 
The  Teacher's  Health.     Riverside  Educ.  Monographs.     1913. 
Theisen,  W.  \\\,  A  Report  on  the  Use  of  Some  Standard  Tests  for  1916- 

17.     Studies  in  Educ.  Measurements  in  Wise,  No.  i. 
Thorndike,  E.  L., 

Educational  Psychology,  191 3.    Vol.  II,  The  Psychology  of  Learning. 
Principles  of  Teaching.     1905. 
Trotter,  Spencer,  The  Geography  of  Commerce.     1906. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin,  191 1,  No.  4,  Report  of  the  Commis- 
sion Appointed  to  Study  the  System  of  Education  in  the  Public 
Schools  of  Baltimore. 
U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education.     Report.     June  30,   1917,  Vol.  I. 

June  30,   1 91 6,  Vol.  I. 
June  30,   1916,  Vol.  II. 


IN  COAniERCIAL  EDUCATION  187 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor,  lUillctin.    Trade  &  Technical  Education  in  the  U. 

S.     Part  of  No.  54,  Sept.  1904. 
U.  S.  I'ureau  of  Labor  Statistics  Bulletins. 

Industrial  Experience  of  Trade  School  Girls  in  Massachusetts.    Wo- 
men in  Industry  Series  No.  16,  Oct.  1917. 
Short-Unit  Courses  for  Wage  Earners  and  a  Factory  School  Experi- 
ment.    Miscellaneous  Series  No.  6.     A])r.  191 5. 
Vocational    Education   Survey  of   Minneapolis,   Minn.,   made  by  the 
National    Society    for   the   Promotion   of    Industrial    Education. 
Vocational  Education  Series  No.  i,  Dec.  1916. 
Vocational  Education  Survey  of  Richmond,  Va.     Miscellaneous  Ser- 
ies No.  7.     Aug.  191 5. 
Updegraff,  Harlan,  Educational  Measurements.     Old  Penn  Weekly,  Nov. 
30,  191 7.  pp.  220-223. 

Vanderlip,  F.  A.,  A  New  College  Degree,  Dept.  Bulletin  No.  3,  43rd  Univ. 
Convocation  of  the  State  of  New  York,  June  28-30,  1905.  pp. 
68-78. 

Welch,  Arnon  W.,  The  Correlation  of  Shorthand  and  Ty])ewriting.  Dec. 
1 916. 

Wells,  Frederic  Lyman,  On  the  Psychomotor  Mechanisms  of  Typewrit- 
ing. American  Journal  of  Psychology,  Jan.  1916,  Vol.  XXVII, 
pp.  47-70. 

Yocum,  A.  Duncan, 

Culture,  Discii)line  &  Democracy.     1913. 

The  IMost  Immediate  Concern  of  Educational  Research  during  the 

Struggle  for  Democracy.     School  &  Society,  Vol.  VII  No.  163, 

pp.  151-156,  Feb.  9,  1918. 
Outline  for  the  Mastery  of    Fundamental    Features    of    Procedure 

through  the  Cumulative  Collection  of  Instances  Involving  Each. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN     INITIAL     FINE     OF     25     CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  50  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.00  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


^UL  31  1933 

NOV  27  1935 


LD  21-50ni-l.'3: 


YD  01 \lo 


i 


c:  i    ' 


gysayTSg?'*",-"'??' 


425627 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


